A review of co-morbid tobacco and cannabis use disorders: Possible mechanisms to explain high rates of co-use

American Journal on Addictions

Volumn 24, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 105-116

  Rabin, Rachel Allison ^a,b   George, Tony Peter ^a,b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^b CENTRE FOR ADDICTION AND MENTAL HEALTH   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CANNABIS;

CANNABIS ADDICTION; CANNABIS USE; COGNITION; HUMAN; INTERVENTION STUDY; NEUROBIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; SMOKING; TASK PERFORMANCE; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE; ADDICTION; COMORBIDITY; MARIJUANA ABUSE; PROSPECTIVE STUDY; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; PSYCHOLOGY; TOBACCO USE DISORDER; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

BEHAVIOR, ADDICTIVE; COMORBIDITY; HUMANS; MARIJUANA ABUSE; PROSPECTIVE STUDIES; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; TOBACCO USE DISORDER; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 84927158342     PISSN: 10550496     EISSN: 15210391     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/ajad.12186     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. UNODC. World Drug Report 2012. New York 2012.
2. Smart RG, Ogborne AC,. Drug use and drinking among students in 36 countries. Addict Behav. 2000; 25: 455-460.
3. Amos A, Wiltshire S, Bostock Y, et al. 'You can't go without a fag.you need it for your hash'-a qualitative exploration of smoking, cannabis and young people. Addiction. 2004; 99: 77-81.
4. Barrett SP, Darredeau C, Pihl RO,. Patterns of simultaneous polysubstance use in drug using university students. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2006; 21: 255-263.
5. Richter K, Kaur H, Resnicow K, et al. A population-based study of cigarette smoking among illicit drug users in the United States. Addiction. 2002; 97: 861-869.
6. Agrawal A, Budney AJ, Lynskey MT,. The Co-occurring use and misuse of cannabis and tobacco: A review. Addiction. 2012; 107: 1221-1233.
7. Coffey C, Carlin JB, Lynskey M, et al. Adolescent precursors of cannabis dependence: Findings from the Victorian Adolescent Health Cohort Study. Br J Psychiatry. 2003; 182: 330-336.
8. Office of Applied Studies. Results from the 2007 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Detailed tables. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration; 2008.
9. DiFranza JR, Savageau JA, Rigotti NA, et al. Development of symptoms of tobacco dependence in youths: 30 month follow up data from the DANDY study. Tobacco Control. 2002; 11: 228-235.
10. Chen CY, O'Brien MS, Anthony JC,. Who becomes cannabis dependent soon after onset of use? Epidemiological evidence from the United States: 2000-2001. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005; 79: 11-22.
11. Budney AJ, Hughes JR, Moore BA, et al. Review of the validity and significance of cannabis withdrawal syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 2004; 161: 1967-1977.
12. Hughes JR, Hatsukami D,. Signs and symptoms of tobacco withdrawal. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986; 43: 289-294.
13. Fiore MC, Bailey WC, Cohen SJ, Dorfman SF, Goldstein MG, Gritz ER. Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence. Rockville, MD 2000.
14. Moore BA, Budney AJ,. Relapse in outpatient treatment for marijuana dependence. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2003; 25: 85-89.
15. Ream GL, Benoit E, Johnson BD, et al. Smoking tobacco along with marijuana increases symptoms of cannabis dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008; 95: 199-208.
16. Agrawal A, Lynskey MT,. Tobacco and cannabis co-occurrence: Does route of administration matter?. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 99: 240-247.
17. Haney M, Bedi G, Cooper ZD, et al. Predictors of marijuana relapse in the human laboratory: Robust impact of tobacco cigarette smoking status. Biol Psychiatry. 2013; 73: 242-248.
18. Agrawal A, Lynskey MT, Pergadia ML, et al. Early cannabis use and DSM-IV nicotine dependence: A twin study. Addiction. 2008; 103: 1896-1904.
19. Okoli CT, Richardson CG, Ratner PA, et al. Adolescents' self-defined tobacco use status, marijuana use, and tobacco dependence. Addict Behav. 2008; 33: 1491-1499.
20. Ford DE, Vu HT, Anthony JC,. Marijuana use and cessation of tobacco smoking in adults from a community sample. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2002; 67: 243-248.
21. WHO;. Tobacco Free Initiative. 2012.
22. Ezzati M, Lopez AD,. Estimates of global mortality attributable to smoking in 2000. Lancet. 2003; 362: 847-852.
23. Tashkin DP,. Increasing cannabis use: What we still need to know about its effects on the lung. Respirology. 2014; 19: 619-620.
24. Mehra R, Moore BA, Crothers K, et al. The association between marijuana smoking and lung cancer: A systematic review. Arch Intern Med. 2006; 166: 1359-1367.
25. Bachs L, Morland H,. Acute cardiovascular fatalities following cannabis use. Forens Sci Int. 2001; 124: 200-203.
26. Budney AJ, Moore BA, Vandrey R,. Health consequences of marijuana use. In:, J, B, editor., Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. 2008; p 171-218.
27. Rehm J, Gnam W, Popova S, et al. The costs of alcohol, illegal drugs, and tobacco in Canada, 2002. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2007; 68: 886-895.
28. Peters EN, Budney AJ, Carroll KM,. Clinical correlates of co-occurring cannabis and tobacco use: A systematic review. Addiction. 2012; 107: 1404-1417.
29. Martin CS, Clifford PR, Clapper RL,. Patterns and predictors of simultaneous and concurrent use of alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and hallucinogens in first-year college students. J Subst Abuse. 1992; 4: 319-326.
30. Akre C, Michaud PA, Berchtold A, et al. Cannabis and tobacco use: Where are the boundaries? A qualitative study on cannabis consumption modes among adolescents. Health Educ Res. 2010; 25: 74-82.
31. Golub AL. The Cultural/Subcultural Contexts of Marijuana Use at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century. Haworth Press; 2006.
32. Mariani JJ, Brooks D, Haney M, et al. Quantification and comparison of marijuana smoking practices: Blunts, joints, and pipes. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011; 113: 249-251.
33. Schwartz RH,. Marijuana a decade and a half later, still a crude drug with underappreciated toxicity. Pediatrics. 2002; 109: 284-289.
34. Dunlap E, Benoit E, Sifaneck SJ, et al. Social constructions of dependency by blunts smokers: Qualitative reports. Int J Drug Policy. 2006; 17: 171-182.
35. Angold A, Costello EJ, Erkanli A,. Comorbidity. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1999; 40: 57-87.
36. Bonn-Miller MO, Zvolensky MJ, Johnson KA,. Uni-morbid and co-occurring marijuana and tobacco use: Examination of concurrent associations with negative mood states. J Addict Dis. 2010; 29: 68-77.
37. Agrawal A, Lynskey MT, Madden PA, et al. Simultaneous cannabis and tobacco use and cannabis-related outcomes in young women. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 101: 8-12.
38. Dome P, Lazary J, Kalapos MP, et al. Smoking, nicotine and neuropsychiatric disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2010; 34: 295-342.
39. Gray R, Rajan AS, Radcliffe KA, et al. Hippocampal synaptic transmission enhanced by low concentrations of nicotine. Nature. 1996; 383: 713-716.
40. Wonnacott S,. Presynaptic nicotinic ACh receptors. Trends Neurosci 1997; 20: 92-98.
41. Koob GF, Volkow ND,. Neurocircuitry of addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010; 35: 217-238.
42. Mansvelder HD, McGehee DS,. Cellular and synaptic mechanisms of nicotine addiction. J Neurobiol. 2002; 53: 606-617.
43. Benowitz NL, Jacob P 3rd, Jones RT, et al. Interindividual variability in the metabolism and cardiovascular effects of nicotine in man. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1982; 221: 368-372.
44. Compton DR, Johnson MR, Melvin LS, et al. Pharmacological profile of a series of bicyclic cannabinoid analogs: classification as cannabimimetic agents. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1992; 260: 201-209.
45. Pertwee RG,. Pharmacology of cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors. Pharmacol Ther. 1997; 74: 129-180.
46. Kano M, Ohno-Shosaku T, Hashimotodani Y, et al. Endocannabinoid-mediated control of synaptic transmission. Physiological Reviews. 2009; 89: 309-380.
47. Pistis M, Porcu G, Melis M, et al. Effects of cannabinoids on prefrontal neuronal responses to ventral tegmental area stimulation. Eur J Neurosci. 2001; 14: 96-102.
48. Chen J, Paredes W, Lowinson JH, et al. Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol enhances presynaptic dopamine efflux in medial prefrontal cortex. Eur J Pharmacol. 1990; 190: 259-262.
49. Bossong MG, van Berckel BN, Boellaard R, et al. Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol induces dopamine release in the human striatum. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2009; 34: 759-766.
50. Gardner EL,. Endocannabinoid signaling system and brain reward: emphasis on dopamine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2005; 81: 263-284.
51. Ameri A,. The effects of cannabinoids on the brain. Prog Neurobiol. 1999; 58: 315-348.
52. Pontieri FE, Tanda G, Di Chiara G,. Intravenous cocaine, morphine, and amphetamine preferentially increase extracellular dopamine in the "shell" as compared with the "core" of the rat nucleus accumbens. Natl Acad Sci USA. 1995; 92: 12304-12308.
53. Pistis M, Ferraro L, Pira L, et al. Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol decreases extracellular GABA and increases extracellular glutamate and dopamine levels in the rat prefrontal cortex: An in vivo microdialysis study. Brain Res. 2002; 948: 155-158.
54. Manzoni OJ, Bockaert J,. Cannabinoids inhibit GABAergic synaptic transmission in mice nucleus accumbens. Eur J Pharmacol. 2001; 26: R3-R5.
55. Cohen C, Perrault G, Voltz C, Steinberg R, Soubrie P,. SR 141716, a central cannabinoid (CB(1)) receptor antagonist, blocks the motivational and dopamine-releasing effects of nicotine in rats. Behav Pharmacol. 2002; 13: 451-463.
56. Shoaib M,. The cannabinoid antagonist AM251 attenuates nicotine self-administration and nicotine-seeking behaviour in rats. Neuropharmacology. 2008; 54: 438-444.
57. Wing VC, Shoaib M,. Second-order schedules of nicotine reinforcement in rats: Effect of AM251. Addict Biol. 2010; 15: 393-402.
58. Forget B, Hamon M, Thiebot MH,. Cannabinoid CB1 receptors are involved in motivational effects of nicotine in rats. Psychopharmacology. 2005; 181: 722-734.
59. Castane A, Valjent E, Ledent C, et al. Lack of CB1 cannabinoid receptors modifies nicotine behavioural responses, but not nicotine abstinence. Neuropharmacology. 2002; 43: 857-867.
60. Cossu G, Ledent C, Fattore L, et al. Cannabinoid CB1 receptor knockout mice fail to self-administer morphine but not other drugs of abuse. Behav Brain Res. 2001; 118: 61-65.
61. Beardsley PM, Thomas BF, McMahon LR,. Cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonists as potential pharmacotherapies for drug abuse disorders. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2009; 21: 134-142.
62. Valjent E, Mitchell JM, Besson MJ, et al. Behavioural and biochemical evidence for interactions between Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and nicotine. Br J Pharmacol. 2002; 135: 564-578.
63. Solinas M, Scherma M, Tanda G, et al. Nicotinic facilitation of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol discrimination involves endogenous anandamide. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2007; 321: 1127-1134.
64. Tullis LM, Dupont R, Frost-Pineda K, et al. Marijuana and tobacco: A major connection? J Addict Dis. 2003; 22: 51-62.
65. Penetar DM, Kouri EM, Gross MM, et al. Transdermal nicotine alters some of marihuana's effects in male and female volunteers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005; 79: 211-223.
66. Perkins KA, Coddington SB, Karelitz JL, et al. Variability in initial nicotine sensitivity due to sex, history of other drug use, and parental smoking. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 99: 47-57.
67. Cooper ZD, Haney M,. Comparison of subjective, pharmacokinetic, and physiological effects of marijuana smoked as joints and blunts. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 103: 107-113.
68. Balerio GN, Aso E, Berrendero F, et al. Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol decreases somatic and motivational manifestations of nicotine withdrawal in mice. Eur J Neurosci. 2004; 20: 2737-2748.
69. Balerio GN, Aso E, Maldonado R,. Role of the cannabinoid system in the effects induced by nicotine on anxiety-like behaviour in mice. Psychopharmacology. 2006; 184: 504-513.
70. Vandrey RG, Budney AJ, Hughes JR, et al. A within-subject comparison of withdrawal symptoms during abstinence from cannabis, tobacco, and both substances. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008; 92: 48-54.
71. Carter BL, Tiffany ST,. Meta-analysis of cue-reactivity in addiction research. Addiction. 1999; 94: 327-340.
72. Zhou X, Nonnemaker J, Sherrill B, et al. Attempts to quit smoking and relapse: factors associated with success or failure from the ATTEMPT cohort study. Addict Behav. 2009; 34: 365-373.
73. Levin KH, Copersino ML, Heishman SJ, et al. Cannabis withdrawal symptoms in non-treatment-seeking adult cannabis smokers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010; 111: 120-127.
74. Jones S, Bonci A,. Synaptic plasticity and drug addiction. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2005; 5: 20-25.
75. Kelley AE,. Memory and addiction: Shared neural circuitry and molecular mechanisms. Neuron. 2004; 44: 161-179.
76. Kalivas PW, Volkow ND,. The neural basis of addiction: A pathology of motivation and choice. Am J Psychiatry. 2005; 162: 1403-1413.
77. Heishman SJ, Kleykamp BA, Singleton EG,. Meta-analysis of the acute effects of nicotine and smoking on human performance. Psychopharmacology. 2010; 210: 453-469.
78. D'Souza DC, Perry E, MacDougall L, et al. The psychotomimetic effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004; 29: 1558-1572.
79. Morrison PD, Zois V, McKeown DA, et al. The acute effects of synthetic intravenous Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on psychosis, mood and cognitive functioning. Psychol Med. 2009; 39: 1607-1616.
80. Biala G, Kruk M,. Cannabinoid receptor ligands suppress memory-related effects of nicotine in the elevated plus maze test in mice. Behav Brain Res. 2008; 192: 198-202.
81. Jacobsen LK, Pugh KR, Constable RT, et al. Functional correlates of verbal memory deficits emerging during nicotine withdrawal in abstinent adolescent cannabis users. Biol Psychiatry. 2007; 61: 31-40.
82. Anthony JC, Warner LA, Kessler RC,. Comparative epidemiology of dependence of tobacco, alcohol, controlled substance, and inhalants: Basic findings from the National Comorbidity Survey. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 1994; 2: 244-268.
83. Nestler EJ, Barrot M, Self DW,. DeltaFosB sustained molecular switch for addiction. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001; 98: 11042-11046.
84. Philibert RA, Gunter TD, Beach SR, et al. Role of GABRA2 on risk for alcohol, nicotine, and cannabis dependence in the Iowa Adoption Studies. Psychiatr Genet. 2009; 19: 91-98.
85. Sullivan D, Pinsonneault JK, Papp AC, et al. Dopamine transporter DAT and receptor DRD2 variants affect risk of lethal cocaine abuse: A gene-gene-environment interaction. Translational Psychiatry. 2013; 3: e222.
86. Vaughn CP, Baker CL, Samowitz WS, et al. The frequency of previously undetectable deletions involving 3' Exons of the PMS2 gene. Genes Chromosomes Cancer. 2013; 52: 107-112.
87. Clarke TK, Weiss AR, Ferarro TN, et al. The dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) SNP rs1076560 is associated with opioid addiction. Ann Hum Genet. 2014; 78: 33-39.
88. Agrawal A, Silberg JL, Lynskey MT, et al. Mechanisms underlying the lifetime co-occurrence of tobacco and cannabis use in adolescent and young adult twins. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010; 108: 49-55.
89. Agrawal A, Wetherill L, Dick DM, et al. Evidence for association between polymorphisms in the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CNR1) gene and cannabis dependence. American journal of medical genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genet. 2009; 150B: 736-740.
90. Chen X, Williamson VS, An SS, et al. Cannabinoid receptor 1 gene association with nicotine dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2008; 65: 816-824.
91. Anney RJ, Lotfi-Miri M, Olsson CA, et al. Variation in the gene coding for the M5 muscarinic receptor (CHRM5) influences cigarette dose but is not associated with dependence to drugs of addiction: Evidence from a prospective population based cohort study of young adults. BMC Genet. 2007; 8: 46.
92. Iacono WG, Carlson SR, Taylor J, et al. Behavioral disinhibition and the development of substance-use disorders: Findings from the Minnesota twin family study. Dev Psychopathol. 1999; 11: 869-900.
93. Jentsch JD, Taylor JR,. Impulsivity resulting from frontostriatal dysfunction in drug abuse: Implications for the control of behavior by reward-related stimuli. Psychopharmacology. 1999; 146: 373-390.
94. Goldstein RZ, Volkow ND,. Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: Neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. Am J Psychiatry. 2002; 159: 1642-1652.
95. Chambers RA, Taylor JR, Potenza MN,. Developmental neurocircuitry of motivation in adolescence: A critical period of addiction vulnerability. Am J Psychiatry. 2003; 160: 1041-1052.
96. Hicks BM, Schalet BD, Malone SM, et al. Psychometric and genetic architecture of substance use disorder and behavioral disinhibition measures for gene association studies. Behav Genet. 2011; 41: 459-475.
97. Wallsten TS, Pleskac TJ, Lejuez CW,. Modeling behavior in a clinically diagnostic sequential risk-taking task. Psychol Rev. 2005; 112: 862-880.
98. Gonzalez R, Schuster RM, Mermelstein RJ, et al. Performance of young adult cannabis users on neurocognitive measures of impulsive behavior and their relationship to symptoms of cannabis use disorders. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2012; 34: 962-976.
99. McQuown SC, Belluzzi JD, Leslie FM,. Low dose nicotine treatment during early adolescence increases subsequent cocaine reward. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2007; 29: 66-73.
100. Patton GC, Coffey C, Carlin JB, et al. Teen smokers reach their mid twenties. J Adolesc Health. 2006; 39: 214-220.
101. Ellickson PL, Tucker JS, Klein DJ,. High-risk behaviors associated with early smoking: Results from a 5-year follow-up. J Adolesc Health. 2001; 28: 465-473.
102. Tarter RE, Vanyukov M, Kirisci L, et al. Predictors of marijuana use in adolescents before and after licit drug use: Examination of the gateway hypothesis. Am J Psychiatry. 2006; 163: 2134-2140.
103. Patton GC, Coffey C, Carlin JB, et al. Reverse gateways? Frequent cannabis use as a predictor of tobacco initiation and nicotine dependence. Addiction. 2005; 100: 1518-1525.
104. Kandel D,. Stages and pathways of drug involvement. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press 2002.
105. Weinberger AH, Sofuoglu M,. The impact of cigarette smoking on stimulant addiction. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2009; 35: 12-17.
106. Panlilio LV, Zanettini C, Barnes C, et al. Prior exposure to THC increases the addictive effects of nicotine in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2013; 38: 1198-1208.
107. Levine A, Huang Y, Drisaldi B, et al. Molecular mechanism for a gateway drug: Epigenetic changes initiated by nicotine prime gene expression by cocaine. Sci Transl Med. 2011; 3: 107ra109.
108. Meng Y, Lichtman AH, Bridgen DT, et al. Inhalation studies with drugs of abuse. NIDA Res Monogr. 1997; 173: 201-224.
109. Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, et al. Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: Systematic analysis of population health data. Lancet. 2006; 367: 1747-1757.
110. van Leeuwen AP, Verhulst FC, Reijneveld SA, et al. Can the gateway hypothesis, the common liability model and/or, the route of administration model predict initiation of cannabis use during adolescence? A survival analysis-the TRAILS study. J Adolesc Health. 2011; 48: 73-78.
111. Shiffman S, Engberg JB, Paty JA, et al. A day at a time: predicting smoking lapse from daily urge. J Abnorm Psychol. 1997; 106: 104-116.
112. Moore BA, Budney AJ,. Tobacco smoking in marijuana-dependent outpatients. J Subst Abuse. 2001; 13: 583-596.
113. de Dios MA, Vaughan EL, Stanton CA, et al. Adolescent tobacco use and substance abuse treatment outcomes. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2009; 37: 17-24.
114. Moolchan ET, Zimmerman D, Sehnert SS, et al. Recent marijuana blunt smoking impacts carbon monoxide as a measure of adolescent tobacco abstinence. Subst Use Misuse. 2005; 40: 231-240.
115. Gourlay SG, Forbes A, Marriner T, et al. Prospective study of factors predicting outcome of transdermal nicotine treatment in smoking cessation. BMJ. 1994; 309: 842-846.
116. Copersino ML, Boyd SJ, Tashkin DP, et al. Quitting among non-treatment-seeking marijuana users: Reasons and changes in other substance use. Am J Addict. 2006; 15: 297-302.
117. O'Brien CP, Childress AR, Ehrman R, et al. Conditioning factors in drug abuse: Can they explain compulsion? J Psychopharmacol. 1998; 12: 15-22.
118. Due DL, Huettel SA, Hall WG, et al. Activation in mesolimbic and visuospatial neural circuits elicited by smoking cues: Evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging. Am J Psychiatry. 2002; 159: 954-960.
119. Juliano LM, Donny EC, Houtsmuller EJ, et al. Experimental evidence for a causal relationship between smoking lapse and relapse. J Abnorm Psychol. 2006; 115: 166-173.
120. Metrik J, Spillane NS, Leventhal AM, et al. Marijuana use and tobacco smoking cessation among heavy alcohol drinkers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011; 119: 194-200.
121. Prochaska JJ, Delucchi K, Hall SM,. A meta-analysis of smoking cessation interventions with individuals in substance abuse treatment or recovery. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2004; 72: 1144-1156.
122. George TP. Nicotine and Tobacco. Vol 24th Edition New York 2011.
123. Levin FR, Mariani JJ, Brooks DJ, et al. Dronabinol for the treatment of cannabis dependence: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011; 116: 142-150.
124. Schuster CR,. Drugs as reinforcers in monkey and man. Pharmacol Rev. 1975; 27: 551-521.
125. Shiffman S, Johnston JA, Khayrallah M, et al. The effect of bupropion on nicotine craving and withdrawal. Psychopharmacology. 2000; 148: 33-40.
126. Carpenter KM, McDowell D, Brooks DJ, et al. A preliminary trial: Double-blind comparison of nefazodone, bupropion-SR, and placebo in the treatment of cannabis dependence. Am J Addicti. 2009; 18: 53-64.
127. Haney M, Ward AS, Comer SD, et al. Bupropion SR worsens mood during marijuana withdrawal in humans. Psychopharmacology. 2001; 155: 171-179.
128. Penetar DM, Looby AR, Ryan ET, et al. Bupropion reduces some of the symptoms of marihuana withdrawal in chronic marihuana users: A pilot study. Subst Abuse. 2012; 6: 63-71.
129. Hill KP, Toto LH, Lukas SE, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy and the nicotine transdermal patch for dual nicotine and cannabis dependence: A pilot study. Am J Addict. 2013; 22: 233-238.
130. Joseph AM, Willenbring ML, Nugent SM, et al. A randomized trial of concurrent versus delayed smoking intervention for patients in alcohol dependence treatment. J Stud Alcohol. 2004; 65: 681-691.
131. Ramo DE, Liu H, Prochaska JJ,. Tobacco and marijuana use among adolescents and young adults: A systematic review of their co-use. Clin Psychol Rev. 2012; 32: 105-121.
132. Becker J, Hungerbuehler I, Berg O, et al. Development of an integrative cessation program for co-smokers of cigarettes and cannabis: Demand analysis, program description, and acceptability. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2013; 8: 33.
133. Nieva G, Ortega LL, Mondon S, et al. Simultaneous versus delayed treatment of tobacco dependence in alcohol-dependent outpatients. Eur Addict Res. 2011; 17: 1-9.
134. Kalman D, Kim S, DiGirolamo G, et al. Addressing tobacco use disorder in smokers in early remission from alcohol dependence: The case for integrating smoking cessation services in substance use disorder treatment programs. Clin Psychol Rev. 2010; 30: 12-24.
135. Amiaz R, Levy D, Vainiger D, et al. Repeated high-frequency transcranial magnetic stimulation over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex reduces cigarette craving and consumption. Addiction. 2009; 104: 653-660.
136. Eichhammer P, Johann M, Kharraz A, et al. High-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation decreases cigarette smoking. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003; 64: 951-953.
137. Volpp KG, Troxel AB, Pauly MV, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of financial incentives for smoking cessation. N Engl J Med. 2009; 360: 699-709.
138. Alessi SM, Petry NM, Urso J,. Contingency management promotes smoking reductions in residential substance abuse patients. J Appl Behav Anal. 2008; 41: 617-622.
139. Stanger C, Budney AJ, Kamon JL, et al. A randomized trial of contingency management for adolescent marijuana abuse and dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 105: 240-247.
140. Kadden RM, Litt MD, Kabela-Cormier E, et al. Abstinence rates following behavioral treatments for marijuana dependence. Addict Behav. 2007; 32: 1220-1236.