Effects of hormone therapy on blood pressure

Menopause

Volumn 22, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 456-468

  Issa, Zeinab ^a   Seely, Ellen W ^b   Rahme, Maya ^c   Fuleihan, Ghada El Hajj ^a,c  

^a AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF BEIRUT   (Lebanon)

^b BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^c Calcium Metabolism and Osteoporosis Program   (Lebanon)

Author keywords

Blood pressure; Hormone treatment; Hypertension; Menopause; Selective estrogen receptor modulators.

Indexed keywords

ANGIOTENSIN II; ATRIAL NATRIURETIC FACTOR; BAZEDOXIFENE; ESTROGEN; LASOFOXIFENE; PROGESTERONE; RALOXIFENE; SELECTIVE ESTROGEN RECEPTOR MODULATOR; TIBOLONE;

ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE ACTIVITY; ARTICLE; BLOOD PRESSURE; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; BLOOD VESSEL TONE; CLIMACTERIUM; DRUG EFFECT; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; ESTROGEN THERAPY; HORMONAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INFLAMMATION; KALLIKREIN KININ SYSTEM; MENOPAUSE; POSTMENOPAUSE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; SYMPATHETIC TONE; VASODILATATION; COMPLICATION; DRUG EFFECTS; FEMALE; INTRADERMAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PROCEDURES;

ADMINISTRATION, CUTANEOUS; BLOOD PRESSURE; ESTROGEN REPLACEMENT THERAPY; ESTROGENS; FEMALE; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION;

EID: 84926644463     PISSN: 10723714     EISSN: 15300374     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/gme.0000000000000322     Document Type: Article

References (135)

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Website. High blood pressure facts. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/bloodpressure/facts.htm. Accessed December 8, 2013
2. Sutton-Tyrrell K, Zhao X, Santoro N, Reproductive hormones and obesity: 9 years of observation from the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation. Am J Epidemiol 2010; 171: 1203-1213
3. Higgins JPT, Green S, eds. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.0.2. [updated September 2009]. West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2009. Available at: http://www.cochrane-handbook.org. Accessed June 27, 2014
4. Babiker FA, De Windt LJ, van Eickels M, Grohe C, Meyer R, Doevendans PA,. Estrogenic hormone action in the heart: regulatory network and function. Cardiovasc Res 2002; 53: 709-719
5. Xing D, Nozell S, Chen YF, Hage F, Oparil S,. Estrogen and mechanisms of vascular protection. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2009; 29: 289-295
6. Barkhem T, Nilsson S, Gustafsson JA,. Molecular mechanisms, physiological consequences and pharmacological implications of estrogen receptor action. Am J Pharmacogenomics 2004; 4: 19-28
7. Prossnitz ER, Barton M,. The G-protein-coupled estrogen receptor GPER in health and disease. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2011; 7: 715-726
8. Yang XP, Reckelhoff JF,. Estrogen, hormonal replacement therapy and cardiovascular disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2011; 20: 133-138
9. Simoncini T,. Mechanisms of action of estrogen receptors in vascular cells: relevance for menopause and aging. Climacteric 2009; 12 (suppl 1): 6-11
10. Simoncini T, Genazzani AR,. Non-genomic actions of sex steroid hormones. Eur J Endocrinol 2003; 148: 281-292
11. Zhu Y, Bian Z, Lu P, Abnormal vascular function and hypertension in mice deficient in estrogen receptor β. Science 2002; 295: 505-508
12. Ogawa S, Emi M, Shiraki M, Hosoi T, Ouchi Y, Inoue S,. Association of estrogen receptor β (ESR2) gene polymorphism with blood pressure. J Hum Genet 2000; 45: 327-330
13. Peter I, Shearman AM, Zucker DR, Variation in estrogen-related genes and cross-sectional and longitudinal blood pressure in the Framingham Heart Study. J Hypertens 2005; 23: 2193-2200
14. Lindsey SH, Cohen JA, Brosnihan KB, Gallagher PE, Chappell MC,. Chronic treatment with the G protein-coupled receptor 30 agonist G-1 decreases blood pressure in ovariectomized mRen2.Lewis rats. Endocrinology 2009; 150: 3753-3758
15. Meyer MR, Amann K, Field AS, Hu C, Hathaway HJ, Kanagy NL,. Deletion of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor increases endothelial vasoconstriction. Hypertension 2012; 59: 507-512
16. O'Dowd BF, Nqyen T, Marchese A, Discovery of three novel G-protein-coupled receptor genes. Genomics 1998; 47: 310-313
17. Kublickiene K, Svedas E, Landgren BM, Small artery endothelial dysfunction in postmenopausal women: in vitro function, morphology, and modification by estrogen and selective estrogen receptor modulators. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90: 6113-6122
18. Nuzzo A, Rossi R, Modena MG,. Endothelial dysfunction in postmenopausal women and hypertension. Womens Health 2007; 3: 515-518
19. Rossi R, Chiurlia E, Nuzzo A, Cioni E, Origliani G, Modena MG,. Flow mediated vasodilatation and the risk of developing hypertension in healthy postmenopausal women. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 44: 1636-1640
20. Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Spiegelhalter DJ, Georgakopoulos D, Robinson J, Deanfield JE,. Aging is associated with endothelial dysfunction in healthy men years before the age-related decline in women. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994; 24: 471-476
21. Majmudar NG, Robson SC, Ford GA,. Effects of the menopause, gender, and estrogen replacement therapy on vascular nitric oxide activity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85: 1577-1583
22. Smolders RG, van der Mooren MJ, Kenemans P, van der Linden PW, Stehouwer CD, Sipkema P,. 17β Estradiol induces a rapid, endothelium-dependent, sex-specific vasodilatation in spontaneous constricted rat arterioles. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 187: 375-381
23. Ouyang P, Michos ED, Karas RH,. Hormone replacement therapy and the cardiovascular system: lessons learned and unanswered questions. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 47: 1741-1753
24. Han G, Ma H, Chintala R, Nongenomic, endothelium-independent effects of estrogen on human coronary smooth muscle are mediated by type I (neuronal) NOS and PI3-kinase-Akt signaling. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2007; 293: H314-H321
25. 2+ currents in aortic smooth muscle cells. Eur J Pharmacol 1995; 294: 625-635
26. Lima SM, Aldrighi JM, Consolim-Colombo FM, Acute administration of 17β-estradiol improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in postmenopausal women. Maturitas 2005; 50: 266-274
27. Kublickiene K, Fu XD, Svedas E, Landgren BM, Genazzani AR, Simoncini T,. Effects in postmenopausal women of estradiol and MPA alone and combined on resistance artery function and endothelial morphology and movement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93: 1874-1883
28. Bui MN, Arai AE, Hathaway L, Waclawiw MA, Csako G, Cannon RO III,. Effect of hormone replacement therapy on carotid arterial compliance in healthy postmenopausal women. Am J Cardiol 2002; 90: 82-85
29. Sumino H, Ichikawa S, Kasama S, Different effects of oral conjugated estrogen and transdermal estradiol on arterial stiffness and vascular inflammatory markers in postmenopausal women. Atherosclerosis 2006; 189: 436-442
30. Ashraf M, Vongpanatasin W,. Estrogen and hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep 2006; 8: 368-376
31. Farag NH, Mahata M, Ziegler MG, O'Connor DT, Mills PJ,. Hormone replacement therapy increases renal kallikrein excretion in healthy postmenopausal women. Life Sci 2003; 72: 1279-1288
32. Levin ER, Gardner DG, Samson WK,. Mechanisms of disease: natriuretic peptides. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 321-327
33. Belo NO, Sairam MR, Dos Reis AM,. Impairment of the natriuretic peptide system in follitropin receptor knockout mice and reversal by estradiol: implications for obesity-Associated hypertension in menopause. Endocrinology 2008; 149: 1399-1406
34. Belo NO, Silva-Barra J, Carnio EC, Antunes-Rodrigues J, Gutkowska J, Dos Reis AM,. Involvement of atrial natriuretic peptide in blood pressure reduction induced by estradiol in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Regul Pept 2004; 117: 53-60
35. Lee DL, Sturgis LC, Labazi H, Angiotensin II hypertension is attenuated in interleukin-6 knockout mice. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2006; 290: H935-H940
36. LaMarca B, Speed J, Fournier L, Hypertension in response to chronic reductions in uterine perfusion in pregnant rats: effect of tumor necrosis factor-α blockade. Hypertension 2008; 52: 1161-1167
37. Georgiadou P, Sbarouni E,. Effect of hormone replacement therapy on inflammatory biomarkers. Adv Clin Chem 2009; 47: 59-93
38. Gao H, Liang M, Bergdahl A, Estrogen attenuates vascular expression of inflammation associated genes and adhesion of monocytes to endothelial cells. Inflamm Res 2006; 55: 349-353
39. Schunkert H, Danser AH, Hense HW, Derkx FH, Kürzinger S, Riegger GA,. Effects of estrogen replacement therapy on the renin-Angiotensin system in postmenopausal women. Circulation 1997; 95: 39-45
40. Umeda M, Ichikawa S, Kanda T, Sumino H, Kobayashi I,. Hormone replacement therapy increases plasma level of angiotensin II in postmenopausal hypertensive women. Am J Hypertens 2001; 14: 206-211
41. Seely EW, Brosnihan KB, Jeunemaitre X, Effects of conjugated oestrogen and droloxifene on the renin-Angiotensin system, BP and renal blood flow in postmenopausal women. Clin Endocrinol 2004; 60: 315-321
42. Proudler AJ, Ahmed AI, Crook D, Fogelman I, Rymer JM., Stevenson JC,. Replacement therapy and serum angiotensin-converting-enzyme activity in postmenopausal women. Lancet 1995; 346: 89-90
43. Seely E, Walsh B, Gerhard M, Williams GH,. Estradiol with or without progesterone and ambulatory BP in postmenopausal women. Hypertension 1999; 33: 1190-1194
44. Ichikawa J, Sumino H, Ichikawa S, Ozaki M,. Different effects of transdermal and oral hormone replacement therapy on the renin-Angiotensin system, plasma bradykinin level, and BP of normotensive postmenopausal women. Am J Hypertens 2006; 19: 744-749
45. Ichikawa A, Sumino H, Ogawa T, Ichikawa S, Nitta K,. Effects of long-Term transdermal hormone replacement therapy on the renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone system, plasma bradykinin levels and BP in normotensive postmenopausal women. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2008; 8: 259-264
46. Hassager C, Riis BJ, Strøm V, Guyene TT, Christiansen C,. The long-Term effect of oral and percutaneous estradiol on plasma renin substrate and blood pressure. Circulation 1987; 76: 753-758
47. Harrison-Bernard LM, Schulman IH, Raij L,. Postovariectomy hypertension is linked to increased renal AT1 receptor and salt sensitivity. Hypertension 2003; 42: 1157-1163
48. Oestreicher EM, Guo C, Seely EW, Estradiol increases proteinuria and angiotensin II type 1 receptor in kidneys of rats receiving l-NAME and angiotensin II. Kidney Int 2006; 70: 1759-1768
49. Takeda-Matsubara Y, Nakagami H, Iwai M, Estrogen activates phosphatases and antagonizes growth-promoting effect of angiotensin II. Hypertension 2002; 39: 41-45
50. García MP, Giménez J, Serna M, Effect of estrogen and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor on vascular remodeling in ovariectomized spontaneously hypertensive rats. Menopause 2006; 13: 397-403
51. Sumino H, Ichikawa S, Miya Y, Sakamaki T, Kurabayashi M,. Angiotensin II plays an important role in maintaining blood pressure in postmenopausal women receiving hormone replacement therapy. Am J Hypertens 2005; 18: 1340-1346
52. Mirza FS, Ong P, Collins P, Effects of estradiol and the angiotensin II receptor blocker irbesartan on vascular function in postmenopausal women. Menopause 2008; 15: 44-50
53. Yanes L, Reckelhoff J,. Postmenopausal hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2011; 7: 740-749
54. Rahmouni K, Correia ML, Haynes WG, Mark AL,. Obesity-Associated hypertension: new insights into mechanisms. Hypertension 2005; 45: 9-14
55. Hall JE, da Silva AA, do Carmo JM, Obesity-induced hypertension: role of sympathetic nervous system, leptin, and melanocortins. J Biol Chem 2010; 285: 17271-17276
56. Haynes WG, Morgan DA, Djalali A, Sivitz WI, Mark AL,. Interactions between the melanocortin system and leptin in control of sympathetic nerve traffic. Hypertension 1999; 33: 542-547
57. Rapelli A,. Hypertension and obesity in menopause. J Hypertens 2002; 20: S26-S28
58. Steiner M, Dunn E, Born L,. Hormones and mood: from menarche to menopause and beyond. J Affect Disord 2003; 74: 67-83
59. Lambert E, Dawood T, Straznicky N, Association between the sympathetic firing pattern and anxiety level in patients with the metabolic syndrome and elevated blood pressure. J Hypertens 2010; 28: 543-550
60. Mueck A, Seeger H,. Progestogens and target tissues: vascular systems. Maturitas 2009; 62: 356-361
61. Schindler AE, Campagnoli C, Druckmann R, Classification and pharmacology of progestins. Maturitas 2008; 61: 171-180
62. Szmuilowicz ED, Adler GK, Ricchiuti V, Hopkins PN, Seely EW,. Relationships between endogenous sex hormone concentrations and vascular function in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92: 4738-4741
63. Kawano H, Motoyama T, Hirai N, Effect of medroxyprogesterone acetate plus estradiol on endothelium-dependent vasodilation in postmenopausal women. Am J Cardiol 2001; 87: 238-240
64. The Writing Group of the PEPI Trial. Effects of estrogen or estrogen/progestin regimens on heart disease risk factors in postmenopausal women. JAMA 1995; 273: 199-208
65. Seeger H, Mueck AO, Teichmann AT, Lippert TH,. Effect of sequential estrogen/progestin treatment on biochemical vasoactive markers in postmenopausal women comparing oral and transdermal application. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol 2000; 27: 17-20
66. White WB, Pitt B, Preston RA, Hanes V,. Antihypertensive effects of drospirenone with 17β-estradiol, a novel hormone treatment in postmenopausal women with stage 1 hypertension. Circulation 2005; 112: 1979-1984
67. White WB, Hanes V, Pitt B, Chauhan V,. Effects of a new hormone therapy, drospirenone and 17-β-estradiol, in postmenopausal women with hypertension. Hypertension 2006; 48: 246-253
68. Lidegaard Ø Nielsen LH, Skovlund CW, Skjeldestad FE, Løkkegaard E,. Risk of venous thromboembolism from use of oral contraceptives containing different progestogens and oestrogen doses: Danish cohort study, 2001-9. BMJ 2011; 343: d6423
69. Gambacciani M, Monteleone P, Vitale C, Dydrogesterone does not reverse the effects of estradiol on endothelium-dependant vasodilation in postmenopausal women: a randomised clinical trial. Maturitas 2002; 43: 117-123
70. Simoncini T, Caruso A, Giretti MS, Effects of dydrogesterone and of its stable metabolite, 20-Adihydrodydrogesterone, on nitric oxide synthesis in human endothelial cells. Fertil Steril 2006; 86 (suppl 4): 1235-1242
71. Kwok S, Charlton-Menys V, Pemberton P, McElduff P, Durrington PN,. Effects of dydrogesterone and norethisterone, in combination with oestradiol, on lipoproteins and inflammatory markers in postmenopausal women. Maturitas 2006; 53: 439-446
72. Crook D, Godsland IF, Hull J, Stevenson JC,. Hormone replacement therapy with dydrogesterone and 17β-oestradiol: effects on serum lipoproteins and glucose tolerance during 24 month follow up. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997; 104: 298-304
73. Gaspard UJ, Wery OJ, Scheen AJ, Jaminet C, Lefebvre PJ,. Long-Term effects of oral estradiol and dydrogesterone on carbohydrate metabolism in postmenopausal women. Climacteric 1999; 2: 93-100
74. Kaya C, Cengiz SD, Cengiz B, Akgun G,. Long-Term effects of low-dose 17β-estradiol plus dydrogesterone on 24-h ambulatory blood pressure in healthy postmenopausal women: a 1-year randomized, prospective study. Gynecol Endocrinol 2007; 23 (suppl 1): 124-129
75. Kaya C, Dinçer Cengiz S, Cengiz B, Akgün G,. The long-Term effects of low-dose 17β-estradiol and dydrogesterone hormone replacement therapy on 24-h ambulatory blood pressure in hypertensive postmenopausal women: a 1-year randomized, prospective study. Climacteric 2006; 9: 437-445
76. Honisett SY, Pang B, Stojanovska L, Sudhir K, Komesaroff PA,. Progesterone does not influence vascular function in postmenopausal women. J Hypertens 2003; 21: 1145-1149
77. L'hermite M, Simoncini T, Fuller S, Genazzani AR,. Could transdermal estradiol + progesterone be a safer postmenopausal HT? A review. Maturitas 2008; 60: 185-201
78. Zanchetti A, Facchetti R, Cesana GC, Menopause-related BP increase and its relationship to age and body mass index: the SIMONA epidemiological study. J Hypertens 2005; 23: 2269-2276
79. Wang L, Szklo M, Folsom AR, Cook NR, Gapstur SM, Ouyang P,. Endogenous sex hormones, blood pressure change, and risk of hypertension in postmenopausal women: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 2012; 224: 228-234
80. Boldo A, White W,. Blood pressure effects of the oral contraceptive and postmenopausal hormone therapies. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2011; 40: 419-432
81. Christ M, Seyffart K, Tillmann HC, Wehling M,. Hormone replacement in postmenopausal women: impact of progestogens on autonomic tone and BP regulation. Menopause 2002; 9: 127-136
82. Prelevic GM, Kwong P, Byrne DJ, Jagroop IA, Ginsburg J, Mikhailidis DP,. A cross-sectional study of the effects of hormone replacement therapy on the cardiovascular disease risk profile in healthy postmenopausal women. Fertil Steril 2002; 77: 945-951
83. Higashi Y, Sanada M, Sasaki S, Effect of estrogen replacement therapy on endothelial function in peripheral resistance arteries in normotensive and hypertensive postmenopausal women. Hypertension 2001; 37: 651-657
84. Sumino H, Ichikawa S, Kumakura H, Effects of hormone replacement therapy on office and ambulatory blood pressure in Japanese hypertensive postmenopausal women. Hypertens Res 2003; 26: 369-376
85. Scuteri A, Bos AJ, Brant LJ, Talbot L, Lakatta EG, Fleg JL,. Hormone replacement therapy and longitudinal changes in BP in postmenopausal women. Ann Intern Med 2001; 135: 229-238
86. Butkevich A, Abraham C, Phillips RA,. Hormone replacement therapy and 24-hour BP profile of postmenopausal women. Am J Hypertens 2000; 13: 1039
87. Mueck A, Seeger H,. Effect of hormone therapy on BP in normotensive and hypertensive postmenopausal women. Maturitas 2004; 49: 189-203
88. Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002; 288: 321-333
89. Anderson GL, Limacher M, Assaf AR, Effects of CEE in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004; 291: 1701-1712
90. Vestergaard P, Hermann AP, Stilgren L, Effects of 5 years of HT on menopausal symptoms and blood pressure-A randomised controlled study. Maturitas 2003; 46: 123-132
91. Steiner AZ, Hodis HN, Lobo RA, Shoupe D, Xiang M, Mack WJ,. Postmenopausal oral estrogen therapy and blood pressure in normotensive and hypertensive subjects: the Estrogen in the Prevention of Atherosclerosis Trial. Menopause 2005; 12: 728-733
92. Sørensen MB, Rasmussen V, Jensen G, Ottesen B,. Temporal changes in clinic and ambulatory BP during cyclic post-menopausal hormone replacement therapy. J Hypertens 2000; 18: 1387-1391
93. Modena MG, Sismondi P, Mueck AO, New evidence regarding hormone replacement therapies is urgently required. Transdermal postmenopausal hormone therapy differs from oral hormone therapy in risks and benefits. Maturitas 2005; 52: 1-10
94. Vongpatanasin W, Tuncel M, Mansour Y, Arbique D, Victor RG,. Transdermal estrogen replacement therapy decreases sympathetic activity in postmenopausal women. Circulation 2001; 103: 2903-2908
95. Fung MM, Poddar S, Bettencourt R, Jassal SK, Barrett-Connor E,. A cross-sectional and 10-year prospective study of postmenopausal estrogen therapy and blood pressure, renal function, and albuminuria: the Rancho Bernardo Study. Menopause 2011; 18: 629-637
96. Karalis I, Beevers G, Beevers M, Lip G,. Hormone replacement therapy and arterial BP in postmenopausal women with hypertension. Blood Press 2005; 14: 38-44
97. Szekacs B, Vajo Z, Acs N, Hormone replacement therapy reduces mean 24 hour BP and its variability in postmenopausal women with treated hypertension. Menopause 2000; 7: 31-35
98. Lee DY, Kim JY, Kim JH, Effects of hormone therapy on ambulatory BP in postmenopausal Korean women. Climacteric 2011; 14: 92-99
99. Harvey P, Molloy D, Upton J, Wing LM,. Dose response effect of conjugated equine estrogen on blood pressure in postmenopausal women with hypertension. Blood Press 2000; 9: 275-282
100. Manhem K, Ghanoum B, Johansson M, Milsom I, Gustafsson H,. Influence of chronic hormone replacement therapy on left ventricular mass and serum-ACE activity. Blood Press 2010; 19: 295-300
101. Hulley S, Grady D, Bush T, Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. JAMA 1998; 280: 605-613
102. Nair GV, Chaput LA, Vittinghoff E, Herrington DM, Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study Investigators. Pulse pressure and cardiovascular events in postmenopausal women with coronary heart disease. Chest 2005; 127: 1498-1506
103. Angerer P, Störk S, Schacky C,. Influence of 17β estradiol on BP of postmenopausal women at high vascular risk. J Hypertens 2001; 19: 2135-2142
104. Affinito P, Palomba S, Bonifacio M, Effects of hormonal replacement therapy in postmenopausal hypertensive patients. Maturitas 2001; 40: 75-83
105. de Villiers TJ,. Clinical issues regarding cardiovascular disease and selective estrogen receptor modulators in postmenopausal women. Climacteric 2009; 12 (suppl 1): 108-111
106. El-Hajj Fuleihan G,. Tibolone and the promise of ideal hormone-replacement therapy. N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 753-755
107. Riggs BL, Hartmann LC,. Selective estrogen-receptor modulators-mechanisms of action and application to clinical practice. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 618-629
108. El-Hajj Fuleihan G,. Tissue specific estrogens. The promise for the future. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 1686-1687
109. Ettinger B, Black DM, Mitlak BH, Reduction of vertebral fracture risk in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis treated with raloxifene: results from a 3-year randomized clinical trial. JAMA 1999; 282: 637-645
110. Barrett-Connor E, Mosca L, Collins P, Effects of raloxifene on cardiovascular events and breast cancer in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 125-137
111. Morgante G, Delia A, Musacchio MC, Severi FM, Petraglia F, De Leo V,. Effects of raloxifene therapy on plasma renin and aldosterone levels and BP in postmenopausal women. Gynecol Endocrinol 2006; 22: 376-380
112. Sumino H, Ichikawa S, Kasama S, Effects of raloxifene on the renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone system and BP in hypertensive and normotensive osteoporotic postmenopausal women. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2010; 10: 70-77
113. Cagnacci A, Zanni AL, Volpe A,. Administration of raloxifene does not influence 24-hour ambulatory BP of postmenopausal women with osteopenia: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; 188: 1278-1282
114. Collins P, Mosca L, Geiger MJ, Effects of the selective estrogen receptor modulator raloxifene on coronary outcomes in the Raloxifene Use for The Heart trial: results of subgroup analyses by age and other factors. Circulation 2009; 119: 922
115. De Villiers TJ, Chines AA, Palacios S, Safety and tolerability of bazedoxifene in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: results of a 5-year, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Osteoporos Int 2011; 22: 567-576
116. Pinkerton JV, Pickar JH, Racketa J, Mirkin S,. Bazedoxifene/conjugated estrogens for menopausal symptom treatment and osteoporosis prevention. Climacteric 2012; 15: 411-418
117. Cummings SR, Ensrud K, Delmas PD, Lasofoxifene in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 2010; 362: 686-696
118. Skouby SO, Sidelmann JJ, Nilas L, Gram J, Jespersen J,. The effect of continuous combined CEE plus MPA and tibolone on cardiovascular metabolic risk factors. Climacteric 2008; 11: 489-497
119. Cagnacci A, Baldassari F, Arangino S, Alessandrini C, Volpe A, Administration of tibolone decreases 24 h heart rate but not BP of post-menopausal women. Maturitas 2004; 15; 48: 155-160
120. Vassalle C, Cicinelli E, Lello S, Mercuri A, Battaglia D, Maffei S,. Effects of menopause and tibolone on different cardiovascular biomarkers in healthy women. Gynecol Endocrinol 2001; 27: 163-169
121. Lloyd G, McGing E, Cooper A, A randomised placebo controlled trial of the effects of tibolone on BP and lipids in hypertensive women. J Hum Hypertens 2000; 14: 99-104
122. Cummings SR, Ettinger B, Delmas PD, The effects of tibolone in older postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 697-708
123. Bots ML, Evans GW, Riley W, The effect of tibolone and continuous combined conjugated equine oestrogens plus MPA on progression of carotid intima-media thickness: the Osteoporosis Prevention and Arterial effects of tiboLone (OPAL) study. Eur Heart J 2006; 27: 746-755
124. ELITE: Early versus Late Intervention Trial with Estradiol. Available at: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00114517. Accessed June 27, 2014
125. Kronos Early Estrogen Prevention Study (KEEPS). Available at: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00154180. Accessed June 27, 2014
126. Harman SM, Black DM, Naftolin F, Brinton EA, Budoff MJ, Cedars MI, Arterial imaging outcomes and cardiovascular risk factors in recently menopausal women: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2014; 161: 249-260
127. Moyer VA, US Preventive Services Task Force. Menopausal hormone therapy for the primary prevention of chronic conditions: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2013; 158: 47-54
128. Wathen CN, Feig DS, Feightner JW, Abramson BL, Cheung AM, Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care. Hormone replacement therapy for the primary prevention of chronic diseases: recommendation statement from the Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care. CMAJ 2004; 170: 1535-1537
129. American Academy of Family Physicians Website. Hormone replacement therapy. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/patient-care/clinical-recommendations/all/hrt.html. Accessed June 27, 2014
130. Mosca L, Benjamin EJ, Berra K, Effectiveness-based guidelines for the prevention of cardiovascular disease in women-2011 update: a guideline from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2011; 123: 1243-1262
131. Santen RJ, Allred DC, Ardoin SP,. Postmenopausal hormone therapy: an Endocrine Society scientific statement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95 (suppl 1): s1-s66
132. The North American Menopause Society. The 2012 hormone therapy position statement of: The North American Menopause Society. Menopause 2012; 19: 257-271
133. The Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada Website. Menopause and osteoporosis update 2009. Available at: http://sogc.org/wp content/uploads/2013/01/Menopause-JOGC-Jan-09.pdf. Accessed December 22, 2013
134. The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists Website. Hormone replacement therapy advice. Available at: http://www.ranzcog.edu.au/doc/hormone-replacement-Therapy-Advice.html. Accessed December 21, 2013
135. James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL,. 2014 Evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA 2014; 311: 507-520