Early-life origin of adult insomnia: Does prenatal-early-life stress play a role?

Sleep Medicine

Volumn 16, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 446-456

  Palagini, Laura ^a   Drake, Christopher L ^b   Gehrman, Philip ^c   Meerlo, Peter ^d   Riemann, Dieter ^e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PISA   (Italy)

^b HENRY FORD HOSPITAL   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF GRONINGEN   (Netherlands)

^e UNIVERSITY OF FREIBURG   (Germany)

Author keywords

Adult insomnia; Childhood; Epigenetic; Prenatal; Stress

Indexed keywords

11BETA HYDROXYSTEROID DEHYDROGENASE 2; ARGIPRESSIN; CORTICOSTERONE; CORTICOTROPIN; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR; GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR; MINERALOCORTICOID RECEPTOR;

AMYGDALOID NUCLEUS; ANXIETY DISORDER; AVP GENE; CASE CONTROL STUDY; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; CORTICOSTEROID BLOOD LEVEL; CORTICOSTERONE BLOOD LEVEL; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY; DEPRESSION; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DNA METHYLATION; EARLY LIFE STRESS; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; EPIGENETICS; FKBP5 GENE; GENE; GENE EXPRESSION; HORMONE BLOOD LEVEL; HORMONE INHIBITION; HSD11B2 GENE; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; INSOMNIA; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NERVOUS SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT; NONHUMAN; NONREM SLEEP; NR3C1 GENE; OBSERVATIONAL STUDY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHENOTYPE; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PRENATAL PERIOD; PRENATAL STRESS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSPECTIVE STUDY; REM SLEEP; REVIEW; SLEEP DISORDER; SLEEP WAKING CYCLE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; ADULT; ANIMAL; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; CHILD; COMPLICATION; FEMALE; INFANT; MENTAL STRESS; NEWBORN; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE; PRESCHOOL CHILD; PSYCHOLOGY; SLEEP INITIATION AND MAINTENANCE DISORDERS;

ADULT; ANIMALS; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; FEMALE; HUMANS; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE DELAYED EFFECTS; SLEEP INITIATION AND MAINTENANCE DISORDERS; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL;

EID: 84926528742     PISSN: 13899457     EISSN: 18785506     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2014.10.013     Document Type: Review

References (147)

1. American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 2013, American Psychiatric Pub, Washington, DSM-5. 5th ed.
2. Van Cauter E., Holmback U., Knutson K., et al. Impact of sleep and sleep loss on neuroendocrine and metabolic function. Horm Res 2007, 67:2-9.
3. Baglioni C., Battagliese G., Feige B., et al. Insomnia as a predictor of depression: a meta-analytic evaluation of longitudinal epidemiological studies. J Affect Disord 2011, 135:10-19.
4. Baglioni C., Riemann D. Is chronic insomnia a precursor to major depression? Epidemiological and biological findings. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2012, 14:511-518.
5. Luyster F.S., Strollo P.J., Zee P.C., et al. Sleep: a health imperative. Sleep 2012, 35:727-734. Boards of Directors of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine and the Sleep Research Society.
6. Knutson K.L., Van Cauter E. Associations between sleep loss and increased risk of obesity and diabetes. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008, 1129:287-304.
7. Knutson K.L. Does inadequate sleep play a role in vulnerability to obesity?. Am J Hum Biol 2012, 24:361-371.
8. Fernandez-Mendoza J., Vgontzas A.N. Insomnia and its impact on physical and mental health. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2013, 15:418.
9. Palagini L., Bruno R.M., Gemignani A., et al. Sleep loss and hypertension: a systematic review. Curr Pharm Des 2013, 19:2409-2419.
10. Kraus S.S., Rabin L.A. Sleep America: managing the crisis of adult chronic insomnia and associated conditions. J Affect Disord 2012, 138:192-212.
11. Franzen P.L., Buysse D.J. Sleep disturbances and depression: risk relationships for subsequent depression and therapeutic implications. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2008, 10:473-481.
12. Spiegelhalder K., Regen W., Nanovska S., Riemann D., et al. Comorbid sleep disorders in neuropsychiatric disorders across the life cycle. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2013, 15:364.
13. Spielman A.J., Caruso L.S., Glovinsky P.B. A behavioral perspective on insomnia treatment. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1987, 10:541-553.
14. Perlis M.L., Giles D.E., Mendelson W.B., et al. Psychophysiological insomnia: the behavioural model and a neurocognitive perspective. J Sleep Res 1997, 6:179-188.
15. Bonnet M.H., Arand D.L. Hyperarousal and insomnia: state of the science. Sleep Med Rev 2010, 14:9-15.
16. Riemann D., Spiegelhalder K., Feige B., et al. The hyperarousal model of insomnia: a review of the concept and its evidence. Sleep Med Rev 2010, 14:19-31.
17. Buysse D.J., Germain A., Hall M., Nofzinger E.A., et al. A neurobiological model of insomnia. Drug Discov Today Dis Models 2011, 8:129-137.
18. Cano G., Mochizuki T., Saper C.B. Neural circuitry of stress-induced insomnia in rats. J Neurosci 2008, 28:10167-10184.
19. Harvey A.G. A cognitive model of insomnia. Behav Res Ther 2002, 40:869-893.
20. Espie C.A., Broomfield N.M., MacMahon K.M., et al. The attention-intention-effort pathway in the development of psychophysiologic insomnia: a theoretical review. Sleep Med Rev 2006, 215-245.
21. Roehrs T., Gumenyuk V., Drake C., et al. Physiological correlates of insomnia. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2014, 21:277-290.
22. Drake C., Richardson G., Roehrs T., et al. Vulnerability to stress-related sleep disturbance and hyperarousal. Sleep 2004, 27:285-291.
23. Drake C.L., Roth T., Roth T., Lee-Chiong T. Predisposition in the evolution of insomnia: evidence, potential mechanisms, and future directions. Sleep Med Clin 2006, 333:49.
24. Drake C.L., Jefferson C., Roehrs T., et al. Stress-related sleep disturbance and polysomnographic response to caffeine. Sleep Med 2006, 7:567-572.
25. Drake C.L., Friedman N.P., Wright K.P., et al. Sleep reactivity and insomnia: genetic and environmental influences. Sleep 2011, 34:1179-1188.
26. Fernández-Mendoza J., Vela-Bueno A., Vgontzas A.N., et al. Cognitive-emotional hyperarousal as a premorbid characteristic of individuals vulnerable to insomnia. Psychosom Med 2010, 72:397-403.
27. Kataria S., Swanson M.S., Trevathan G.E. Persistence of sleep disturbances in preschool children. J Pediatr 1987, 110:642-646.
28. Mindell J.A., Owens J.A. Sleep problems in pediatric practice: clinical issues for the pediatric nurse practitioner. J Pediatr Health Care 2003, 17:324-331.
29. Fricke-Oerkermann L., Pluck J., Schredl M., et al. Prevalence and course of sleep problems in childhood. Sleep 2007, 30:1371-1377.
30. Hauri P., Olmstead E. Childhood-onset insomnia. Sleep 1980, 3:59-65.
31. Gregory A.M., Caspi A., Moffitt T.E., et al. Family conflict in childhood: a predictor of later insomnia. Sleep 2006, 29:1063-1067.
32. Philip P., Guilleminault C. Adult psychophysiologic insomnia and positive history of childhood insomnia. Sleep 1996, 19:16-22.
33. Jenni O.G., O'Connor B.B. Children's sleep: an interplay between culture and biology. Pediatrics 2005, 115:204-216.
34. Sadeh A., McGuire J.P.D., Sachs H., et al. Sleep and psychological characteristics of children on a psychiatric inpatient unit. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1995, 34:813-819.
35. Touchette E., Petit D., Tremblay R.E., et al. Risk factors and consequences of early childhood dyssomnias: new perspectives. Sleep Med Rev 2009, 13:355-361.
36. Teicher M.H., Andersen S.L., Polcari A., et al. Developmental neurobiology of childhood stress and trauma. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2002, 25:397-426.
37. Teicher M., Andersen S.L., Polcari A., et al. The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2003, 27:33-44.
38. Heim C., Binder E.B. Current research trends in early life stress and depression: review of human studies on sensitive periods, gene-environment interactions, and epigenetics. Exp Neurol 2012, 233:102-111.
39. Davidson R.J., McEwen B.S. Social influences on neuroplasticity: stress and interventions to promote well-being. Nat Neurosci 2012, 15:689-695.
40. Kendler K.S., Gardner C.O., Prescott C.A. Toward a comprehensive development model for major depression in women. Am J Psychiatry 2002, 159:1133-1145.
41. Pervanidou P., Chrousos G.P. Post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents: from Sigmund Freud's "trauma" to psychopathology and the (dys)metabolic syndrome. Horm Metab Res 2007, 39:413-419.
42. Loman M.M., Gunnar M.R. Early experience, stress, and neurobehavioral development center. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2010, 34:867-876.
43. Dugovic C., Maccari S., Weibel L., et al. High corticosterone levels in prenatally -stressed rats predict persistent paradoxical sleep alterations. J Neurosci 1999, 19:8656-8664.
44. Koehl M., Darnaudery M., Dulluc J., et al. Prenatal stress alters circadian activity of hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and hippocampal corticosteroid receptors in adult rats of both gender. J Neurobiol 1999, 40:302-315.
45. Rao U., McGinty D.J., Shinde A., et al. Prenatal stress is associated with depression-related electroencephalographic sleep changes in adult male rats: a preliminary report. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1999, 23:929-939.
46. Weinstock M. Alterations induced by gestational stress in brain morphology and behaviour of the offspring. Prog Neurobiol 2001, 65:427-451.
47. Kennaway D.J. Programming of the fetal suprachiasmatic nucleus and subsequent adult rhythmicity. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2002, 13:398-402.
48. Field T., Diego M., Hernandez-Reif M., et al. Prenatal anger effects on the fetus and neonate. J Obstet Gynaecol 2002, 22:260-266.
49. Field T., Diego M., Hernandez-Reif M., et al. Sleep disturbances in depressed pregnant women and their newborns. Infant Behav Dev 2007, 30:127-133.
50. O'Connor T.G., Caprariello P., Blackmore E.R., et al. Prenatal mood disturbance predicts sleep problems in infancy and toddlerhood. Early Hum Dev 2007, 83:451-458.
51. Baird J., Hill C.M., Kendrick T., et al. Infant sleep disturbance is associated with preconceptional psychological distress: findings from the Southampton Women's Survey. Sleep 2009, 32:566-568.
52. Nevarez M.D., Rifas-Shiman S.L., Kleinman K.P., et al. Associations of early life risk factors with infant sleep duration. Acad Pediatr 2010, 10:187-193.
53. Lupien S.J., McEwen B.S., Gunnar M.R., et al. Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nat Rev Neurosci 2009, 10:434-445.
54. Maccari S., Krugers H.J., Morley-Fletcher S., et al. The consequences of early-life adversity: neurobiological, behavioural and epigenetic adaptations. J Neuroendocrinol 2014, 26:707-723.
55. Sandman C.A., Davis E.P., Buss C., et al. Exposure to prenatal psychobiological stress exerts programming influences on the mother and her fetus. Neuroendocrinology 2012, 95:7-21.
56. De Bellis M.D., Chrousos G.P., Dorn L.D., et al. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in sexually abused girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994, 78:249-255.
57. Weinstock M. Does prenatal stress impair coping and regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis?. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1997, 21:1-10.
58. Van Voorhees E., Scarpa A. The effects of child maltreatment on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Trauma Violence Abuse 2004, 5:333-352.
59. Carroll B.J. Childhood maltreatment and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis reactivity. Biol Psychiatry 2010, 67:59.
60. Pesonen A.K., Räikkönen K., Matthews K., et al. Prenatal origins of poor sleep in children. Sleep 2009, 32:1086-1092.
61. Beijers R., Buitelaar J.K., de Weerth C. Mechanisms underlying the effects of prenatal psychosocial stress on child outcomes: beyond the HPA axis. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2014, 23:943-956.
62. Glover V. Prenatal stress and its effects on the fetus and the child: possible underlying biological mechanisms. Adv Neurobiol 2015, 10:269-283.
63. Talge N.M., Neal C., Glover V. Antenatal maternal stress and long-term effects on child neurodevelopment: how and why?. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2007, 48:245-261.
64. Flinn M., Nepomnaschy P.A., Muehlenbein M.P., et al. Evolutionary functions of early social modulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis development in humans. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2011, 35:1611-1629.
65. Cottrell E.C., Seckl J.R. Prenatal stress, glucocorticoids and the programming of adult disease. Front Behav Neurosci 2009, 3:19.
66. Weinstock M. Changes induced by prenatal stress in behavior and brain morphology: can they be prevented or reversed?. Adv Neurobiol 2015, 10:3-25.
67. Kaiser S., Sachser N. The effects of prenatal social stress on behaviour: mechanisms and function. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2005, 29:283-294.
68. Gluckman P., Hanson M. Echoes of the past: evolution, development, health and disease. Discov Med 2004, 4:401-407.
69. Kaiser S., Sachser N. Effects of prenatal social stress on offspring development: pathology or adaptation?. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 2009, 18:118-121.
70. McEwen B.S. Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: central role of the brain. Physiol Rev 2007, 87:873-904.
71. McEwen B.S. Understanding the potency of stressful early life experiences on brain and body function. Metabolism 2008, 57. S11-5.
72. Walker E.F., Diforio D. Schizophrenia: a neural diathesis-stress model. Psychol Rev 1997, 104:667-685.
73. Kessler R.C., McLaughlin K.A., Green J.G., et al. Childhood adversities and adult psychopathology in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. Br J Psychiatry 2010, 197:378-385.
74. Varese F., Smeets F., Drukker M., et al. Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: a meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective- and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophr Bull 2012, 38:661-671.
75. Henry C., Kabbaj M., Simon H., et al. Prenatal stress increases the hypothalamopituitary-adrenal axis response in young and adult rats. J Neuroendocrinol 1994, 6:341-345.
76. Tiba P.A., Tufik S., Suchecki D. Effects of maternal separation on baseline sleep and cold stress-induced sleep rebound in adult Wistar rats. Sleep 2004, 27:1146-1153.
77. Tiba P.A., Tufik S., Suchecki D. Long lasting alteration in REM sleep of female rats submitted to long maternal separation. Physiol Behav 2008, 93:444-452.
78. Chapman D.P., Wheaton A.G., Anda R.F., et al. Adverse childhood experiences and sleep disturbances in adults. Sleep Med 2011, 12:773-779.
79. Dupont C., Armant D.R., Brenner C.A. Epigenetics: definition, mechanisms and clinical perspective. Semin Reprod Med 2009, 27:351-357.
80. Meaney M.J., Diorio J., Francis D., et al. Early environmental regulation of forebrain glucocorticoid receptor gene expression: implications for adrenocortical responses to stress. Dev Neurosci 1996, 18:49-72.
81. Darnaudéry M., Maccari S. Epigenetic programming of the stress response in male and female rats by prenatal restraint stress. Brain Res Rev 2008, 57:571-585.
82. Murgatroyd C., Spengler D. Epigenetic programming of the HPA axis: early life decides. Stress 2011, 14:581-589.
83. Szyf M. The early-life social environment and DNA methylation. Clin Genet 2012, 8:1341-1349.
84. Klengel T., Mehta D., Anacker C., et al. Allele-specific FKBP5 DNA demethylation mediates gene-childhood trauma interactions. Nat Neurosci 2013, 16:33-41.
85. Provençal N., Binder E.B. The effects of early life stress on the epigenome: from the womb to adulthood and even before. Exp Neurol 2014, 10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.09.001.
86. Palagini L., Biber K., Riemann D. The genetics of insomnia - evidence for epigenetic mechanisms?. Sleep Med Rev 2014, 18:225-235.
87. Mulder E.J., Robles de Medina P.G., Huizink A.C., et al. Prenatal maternal stress: effects on pregnancy and the (unborn) child. Early Hum Dev 2002, 70:3-14.
88. Austin M.P., Leader L.R., Reilly N. Prenatal stress, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and fetal and infant neurobehaviour. Early Hum Dev 2005, 81:917-926.
89. O'Donnell K., O'Connor T.G., Glover V. Prenatal stress and neurodevelopment of the child: focus on the HPA axis and role of the placenta. Dev Neurosci 2009, 31:285-392.
90. Gitau R., Cameron A., Fisk N.M., et al. Fetal exposure to maternal cortisol. Lancet 1998, 352:707-708.
91. de Weerth C., Zijl R.H., Buitelaar J.K. Development of cortisol circadian rhythm in infancy. Early Hum Dev 2003, 73:39-52.
92. Ader R. Neonatal stimulation and maturation of the 24-hour adrenocortical rhythm. Prog Brain Res 1975, 42:333-341.
93. Maccari S., Piazza P.V., Kabbaj M., et al. Adoption reverses the long-term impairment in glucocorticoid feedback induced by prenatal stress. J Neurosci 1995, 15:110-116.
94. Barbazanges A., Piazza P.V., Le Moal M., et al. Maternal glucocorticoid secretion mediates long term effects of prenatal stress. J Neurosci 1996, 16:3943-3949.
95. Weinstock M., Matlina E., Maor G.I., et al. Prenatal stress selectively alters the reactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal system in the female rat. Brain Res 1992, 595:195-200.
96. Weinstock M., Poltyrev T., Schorer-Apelbaum D., et al. Effect of prenatal stress on plasma corticosterone and catecholamines in response to footshock in rats. Physiol Behav 1998, 64:439-444.
97. Opp M.R. Corticotropin-releasing hormone involvement in stressor-induced alterations in sleep and in the regulation of waking. Adv Neuroimmunol 1995, 5:123-143.
98. Gonzalez M.C., Valatx J.L. Effects of intracerebroventricular administration of alpha-helical CRH (9-41) on the sleep/waking cycle in rats under normal conditions or after subjection to an acute stressful stimulus. J Sleep Res 1997, 6:164-170.
99. Gonzalez M.C., Valatx J.L., Debilly G. Role of the locus coeruleus in the sleep rebound following two different sleep deprivation methods in the rat. Brain Res 1996, 740:215-226.
100. McEwen B.S. Brain on stress: how the social environment gets under the skin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012, 109:17180-17185.
101. Korosi A., Shanabrough M., McClelland S., et al. Early- life experience reduces excitation to stress-responsive hypothalamic neurons and reprograms the expression of corticotropin-releasing hormone. J Neurosci 2010, 30:703-713.
102. Tamura M., Sajo M., Kakita A., et al. Prenatal stress inhibits neuronal maturation through downregulation of mineralocorticoid receptors. J Neurosci 2011, 31:11505-11514.
103. Meerlo P., Mistlberger R.E., Jacobs B.L., et al. New neurons in the adult brain: the role of sleep and consequences of sleep loss. Sleep Med Rev 2009, 13:187-194.
104. Joo E.Y., Kim H., Suh S., et al. Hippocampal substructural vulnerability to sleep disturbance and cognitive impairment in patients with chronic primary insomnia: magnetic resonance imaging morphometry. Sleep 2014, 37:1189-1198.
105. Roth T.L., Sweatt J.D. Annual research review: epigenetic mechanisms and environmental shaping of the brain during sensitive periods of development. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2011, 52:398-408.
106. Hruby R., Maas L.M., Fedor-Freybergh P.G. Early brain development toward shaping of human mind: an integrative psychoneurodevelopmental model in prenatal and perinatal medicine. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 2013, 34:447-463.
107. Bohacek J., Mansuy I.M. Epigenetic inheritance of disease and diseases risk. Neuropsychopharmacology 2013, 38:220-236.
108. Franklin T.B., Russig H., Weiss I.C., et al. Epigenetic transmission of the impact of early stress across generations. Biol Psychiatry 2010, 68:408-415.
109. Crews D., Gore A.C. Epigenetic synthesis: a need for a new paradigm for evolution in a contaminated world. F1000 Biol Rep 2012, 4:18.
110. Wilkinson P.O., Goodyer I.M. Childhood adversity and allostatic overload of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: a vulnerability model for depressive disorders. Dev Psychopathol 2011, 23(4):1017-1037.
111. Carr C.P., Martins C.M., Stingel A.M., et al. The role of early life stress in adult psychiatric disorders: a systematic review according to childhood trauma subtypes. J Nerv Ment Dis 2013, 201:1007-1020.
112. Noll J.G., Trickett P., Susman E.J., et al. Sleep disturbances and childhood sexual abuse. J Pediatr Psychol 2006, 31:469-480.
113. Bader K., Schäfer V., Schenkel M., et al. Adverse childhood experiences associated with sleep in primary insomnia. J Sleep Res 2007, 16:285-296.
114. Bader K., Schäfer V., Schenkel M., et al. Increased nocturnal activity associated with adverse childhood experiences in patients with primary insomnia. J Nerv Ment Dis 2007, 195:588-595.
115. Bernert R.A., Merrill K.A., Braithwaite S.R., et al. Family life stress and insomnia symptoms in a prospective evaluation of young adults. J Fam Psychol 2007, 21:58-66.
116. Koskenvuo K., Hublin C., Partinen M., et al. Childhood adversities and quality of sleep in adulthood: a population-based study of 26,000 Finns. Sleep Med 2010, 11:17-22.
117. Greenfield E.A., Lee C., Friedman E.L., et al. Childhood abuse as a risk factor for sleep problems in adulthood: evidence from a U.S. National study. Ann Behav Med 2011, 42:245-256.
118. Ramsawh H.J., Ancoli-Israel S., Sullivan S.G., et al. Neuroticism mediates the relationship between childhood adversity and adult sleep quality. Behav Sleep Med 2011, 9:130-143.
119. Gress-Smith J.L., Roubinov D.S., Andreotti C., et al. Prevalence, severity and risk factors for depressive symptoms and insomnia in college undergraduates. Stress Health 2013, 10.1002/smi.2509.
120. Chapman D.P., Liu Y., Presley-Cantrell L.R., et al. Adverse childhood experiences and frequent insufficient sleep in 5 U.S. States, 2009: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Public Health 2013, 3:13.
121. Bader K., Schäfer V., Nissen L., et al. Heightened beta EEG activity during nonrapid eye movement sleep in primary insomnia patients with reports of childhood maltreatment. J Clin Neurophysiol 2013, 30:188-198.
122. Germain A., Buysse D.J., Nofzinger E. Sleep-specific mechanisms underlying posttraumatic stress disorder: integrative review and neurobiological hypotheses. Sleep Med Rev 2008, 12:185-195.
123. Ackerman P.T., Newton J.E., McPherson W.B., et al. Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder and other psychiatric diagnoses in three groups of abused children (sexual, physical, and both). Child Abuse Negl 1998, 22:759-774.
124. Zlotnick C., Warshaw M., Shea M.T., et al. Chronicity in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and predictors of course of comorbid PTSD in patients with anxiety disorders. J Trauma Stress 1999, 12:89-100.
125. Barlow D.H. Anxiety and its disorders: the nature and treatment of anxiety and panic 2002, Guilford, New York. 2nd ed.
126. Otte C., Neylan T.C., Pole N., et al. Association between childhood trauma and catecholamine response to psychological stress in police academy recruits. Biol Psychiatry 2005, 57:27-32.
127. Perry B.D., Pollard R. Homeostasis, stress, trauma, and adaptation. A neurodevelopmental view of childhood trauma. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 1998, 7:33-51.
128. Hertzman C. The biological embedding of early experience and its effects on health in adulthood. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999, 896:85-95.
129. Feng P., Vurbic D., Wu Z., et al. Brain orexins and wake regulation in rats exposed tomaternaldeprivation. Brain Res 2007, 1154:163-172.
130. Mrdalj J., Pallesen S., Milde A.M., et al. Early and later life stress alter brain activity and sleep in rats. PLoS ONE 2013, 8. e69923.
131. Plotsky P.M., Meaney M.J. Early, postnatal experience alters hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) mRNA, median eminence CRF content and stress-induced release in adult rats. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1993, 18(3):195-200.
132. Plotsky P.M., Thrivikraman K.V., Nemeroff C.B., et al. Long-term consequences of neonatal rearing on central corticotropin-releasing factor systems in adult male rat offspring. Neuropsychopharmacology 2005, 30(12):2192-2204.
133. Ladd C.O., Owens M.J., Nemeroff C.B. Persistent changes in corticotropin-releasing factor neuronal systems induced by maternal deprivation. Endocrinology 1996, 137:1212-1218.
134. Berridge C.W., España R.A., Vittoz N.M. Hypocretin/orexin in arousal and stress. Brain Res 2010, 1314:91-102.
135. Prober D.A., Rihel J., Onah A.A., et al. Hypocretin/orexin overexpression induces an insomnia-like phenotype in zebrafish. J Neurosci 2006, 26:13400-13410.
136. Equihua A.C., De La Herrán-Arita A.K., Drucker-Colin R. Orexin receptor antagonists as therapeutic agents for insomnia. Front Pharmacol 2013, 4:163.
137. Mieda M., Sakurai T. Overview of orexin/hypocretin system. Prog Brain Res 2012, 198:5-14.
138. Pryce C.R., Aubert Y., Maier C., et al. The developmental impact of prenatal stress, prenatal dexamethasone and postnatal social stress on physiology, behaviour and neuroanatomy of primate offspring: studies in rhesus macaque and common marmoset. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011, 214:33-53.
139. Lucassen P.J., Meerlo P., Naylor A.S., et al. Regulation of adult neurogenesis by stress, sleep disruption, exercise and inflammation: implications for depression and antidepressant action. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2010, 20:1-17.
140. Murgatroyd C., Patchev A.V., Wu Y., et al. Dynamic DNA methylation programs persistent adverse effects of early-life stress. Nat Neurosci 2009, 12:1559-1566.
141. McGowan P.O. Epigenetic clues to the biological embedding of early life adversity. Biol Psychiatry 2012, 72:4-5.
142. McGowan P.O. Epigenomic mechanisms of early adversity and HPA dysfunction: considerations for PTSD research. Front Psychiatry 2013, 4:110.
143. Szyf M., Bick J. DNA methylation: a mechanism for embedding early life experiences in the genome. Child Dev 2013, 84:49-57.
144. Weaver I.C., Cervoni N., Champagne F.A., et al. Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior. Nat Neurosci 2004, 7:847-854.
145. Weaver I.C., D'Alessio A.C., Brown S.E., et al. The transcription factor nerve growth factor-inducible protein a mediates epigenetic programming: altering epigenetic marks by immediate-early genes. J Neurosci 2007, 27:1756-1768.
146. Yang B.Z., Zhang H., Ge W., et al. Child abuse and epigenetic mechanisms of disease risk. Am J Prev Med 2013, 44:101-107.
147. Sanford L.D., Suchecki D., Meerlo P. Stress, arousal, and sleep. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2014, 10.1007/7854_2014_314.