Individual differences in activation of the parental care motivational system: Assessment, prediction, and implications

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Volumn 108, Issue 3, 2015, Pages 497-514

  Buckels, Erin E ^a   Beall, Alec T ^b   Hofer, Marlise K ^b   Lin, Eden Y ^b   Zhou, Zenan ^b   Schaller, Mark ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Individual differences; Motivation; Parental care; Scale validation; Tenderness

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ATTITUDE; CHILD; CHILD PARENT RELATION; FEMALE; HUMAN; INDIVIDUALITY; INFANT; MALE; MARRIAGE; MOTIVATION; PARENT; PERCEPTION; PERSONALITY; PERSONALITY TEST; PSYCHOLOGY; PSYCHOMETRY; QUESTIONNAIRE; REPRODUCIBILITY; SEX DIFFERENCE;

ADULT; ATTITUDE; CHILD; FEMALE; HUMANS; INDIVIDUALITY; INFANT; MALE; MARRIAGE; MOTIVATION; PARENTING; PARENTS; PERSONALITY; PERSONALITY INVENTORY; PSYCHOMETRICS; REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS; SEX FACTORS; SOCIAL PERCEPTION; SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES;

EID: 84925665128     PISSN: 00223514     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/pspp0000023     Document Type: Article

References (91)

1. Aharon, I., Etcoff, N., Ariely, D., Chabris, C. F., O'Connor, E., & Breiter, H. C. (2001). Beautiful faces have variable reward value: FMRI and behavioral evidence. Neuron, 32, 537-551. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(01)00491-3
2. Aron, A., Aron, E. N., & Smollan, D. (1992). Inclusion of other in the self scale and the structure of interpersonal closeness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 596-612. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.4.596
3. Atzil, S., Hendler, T., & Feldman, R. (2011). Specifying the neurobiological basis of human attachment: Brain, hormones, and behavior in synchronous and intrusive mothers. Neuropsychopharmacology, 36, 2603-2615. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/npp.2011.172
4. Aunger, R., & Curtis, V. (2013). The anatomy of motivation: An evolutionary ecological approach. Biological Theory, 8, 49-63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13752-013-0101-7
5. Bartels, A., & Zeki, S. (2004). The neural correlates of maternal and romantic love. NeuroImage, 21, 1155-1166. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.11.003
6. Batson, C. D. (2006). SIT or STAND? Psychological Inquiry, 17, 30-59.
7. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
8. Beall, A. T., & Schaller, M. (2014). Affective implications of the mating/parenting trade-off: Short-term mating motives and desirability as a short-term mate predict less intense tenderness responses to infants. Personality and Individual Differences, 68, 112-117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.03.049
9. Bell, D. C. (2001). Evolution of parental caregiving. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 216 -229. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0503_3
10. Bem, S. L. (1981). Bem Sex Role Inventory: Professional manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
11. Bernard, L. C., Mills, M., Swenson, L., & Walsh, R. P. (2005). An evolutionary theory of human motivation. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 131, 129 -184. http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/MONO.131.2.129-184
12. Brosch, T., Sander, D., & Scherer, K. R. (2007). That baby caught my eye. Attention capture by infant faces. Emotion, 7, 685-689. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.3.685
13. Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 116-131. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116
14. Cameron, T. A., DeShazo, J. R., & Johnson, E. H. (2010). The effect of children on adult demands for health-risk reductions. Journal of Health Economics, 29, 364-376. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2010.02.005
15. Cárdenas, R. A., Harris, L. J., & Becker, M. W. (2013). Sex differences in visual attention toward infant faces. Evolution and Human Behavior, 34, 280-287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2013.04.001
16. Caria, A., de Falco, S., Venuti, P., Lee, S., Esposito, G., Rigo, P., Bornstein, M. H. (2012). Species-specific response to human infant faces in the premotor cortex. NeuroImage, 60, 884-893. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.12.068
17. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control-theory of behavior. In B. R. Schlenker (Ed.), The self and social life (pp. 146-174). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
18. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2012). Cybernetic control processes and the self-regulation of behavior. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of human motivation (pp. 28-42). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195399820.013.0003
19. Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 319-333. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319
20. Cassidy, B. S., Zebrowitz, L. A., & Gutchess, A. H. (2012). Appearancebased inferences bias source memory. Memory & Cognition, 40, 1214-1224. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13421-012-0233-1
21. Chapman, H. A., & Anderson, A. K. (2013). Things rank and gross in nature: A review and synthesis of moral disgust. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 300-327. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0030964
22. Chaulk, B., Johnson, P. J., & Bulcroft, R. (2003). Effects of marriage and children on financial risk tolerance: A synthesis of family development and prospect theory. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 24, 257-279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1025495221519
23. Cisler, J. M., Olatunji, B. O., & Lohr, J. M. (2009). Disgust, fear, and the anxiety disorders: A critical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 34-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2008.09.007
24. Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281-302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0040957
25. Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 113-126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113
26. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
27. Doherty, R. W. (1997). The emotional contagion scale: A measure of individual differences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 21, 131-154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1024956003661
28. Duncan, L. A., Schaller, M., & Park, J. H. (2009). Perceived vulnerability to disease: Development and validation of a 15-item self-report instrument. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 541-546. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.05.001
29. Edelstein, R. S., Stanton, S. J., Henderson, M. M., & Sanders, M. R. (2010). Endogenous estradiol levels are associated with attachment avoidance and implicit intimacy motivation. Hormones and Behavior, 57, 230-236. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.11.007
30. Eibach, R. P., Libby, L. K., & Ehrlinger, J. (2009). Priming family values: How being a parent affects moral evaluations of harmless but offensive acts. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 1160-1163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.06.017
31. Eibach, R. P., & Mock, S. E. (2011). The vigilant parent: Parental role salience affects parents' risk perceptions, risk-aversion, and trust in strangers. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 694-697.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.009
32. Fantuzzo, J., Tighe, E., & Childs, S. (2000). Family involvement questionnaire: A multivariate assessment of family participation in early childhood education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 367-376. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.2.367
33. Fessler, D. M. T., Holbrook, C., Pollack, J. S., & Hahn-Holbrook, J. (2014). Stranger danger: Parenthood increases the envisioned bodily formidability of menacing men. Evolution and Human Behavior, 35, 109-117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2013.11.004
34. Geary, D. C. (2000). Evolution and proximate expression of human paternal investment. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 55-77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.1.55
35. Gilead, M., & Liberman, N. (2014). We take care of our own: Caregiving salience increases out-group bias in response to out-group threat. Psychological Science, 25, 1380 -1387. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797614531439
36. Glocker, M. L., Langleben, D. D., Ruparel, K., Loughead, J. W., Gur, R. C., & Sachser, N. (2009). Baby schema in infant faces induces cuteness perception and motivation for caretaking in adults. Ethology, 115, 257-263. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2008.01603.x
37. Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D., & Simon-Thomas, E. (2010). Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 351-374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018807
38. Gordon, I., Zagoory-Sharon, O., Leckman, J. F., & Feldman, R. (2010). Oxytocin and the development of parenting in humans. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 377-382. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.02.005
39. Gray, P. B., Yang, C. F., & Pope, H. G., Jr. (2006). Fathers have lower salivary testosterone levels than unmarried men and married non-fathers in Beijing, China. Proceedings. Biological Sciences/The Royal Society, 273, 333-339. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2005.3311
40. Hahn, A. C., Xiao, D., Sprengelmeyer, R., & Perrett, D. I. (2013). Gender differences in the incentive salience of adult and infant faces. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (2006), 66, 200-208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2012.705860
41. Hahn-Holbrook, J., Holbrook, C., & Haselton, M. G. (2011). Parental precaution: Neurobiological means and adaptive ends. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1052-1066. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.09.015
42. Hahn-Holbrook, J., Holt-Lunstad, J., Holbrook, C., Coyne, S. M., & Lawson, E. T. (2011). Maternal defense: Breast feeding increases aggression by reducing stress. Psychological Science, 22, 1288-1295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797611420729
43. Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 701-713. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7
44. Haskett, M. E., Scott, S. S., Willoughby, M., Ahern, L., & Nears, K. (2006). The Parent Opinion Questionnaire and child vignettes for use with abusive parents: Assessment of psychometric properties. Journal of Family Violence, 21, 137-151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10896-005-9010-2
45. Hill, C. A. (1987). Affiliation motivation: People who need people. but in different ways. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1008-1018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.5.1008
46. Horn, J. L. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 30, 179 -185. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02289447
47. Hume, J. M., & Wynne-Edwards, K. E. (2005). Castration reduces male testosterone, estradiol, and territorial aggression, but not paternal behavior in biparental dwarf hamsters (Phodopus campbelli). Hormones and Behavior, 48, 303-310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.04.001
48. Inbar, Y., Pizarro, D., Iyer, R., & Haidt, J. (2012). Disgust sensitivity, political conservatism, and voting. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3, 537-544. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1948550611429024
49. Jackson, D. N. (1967). Personality Research Form manual. New York: Research Psychologists Press.
50. John, O. P., & Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 102-138). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
51. Jones, A., & Fitness, J. (2008). Moral hypervigilance: The influence of disgust sensitivity in the moral domain. Emotion, 8, 613-627. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0013435
52. Kalawski, J. P. (2010). Is tenderness a basic emotion? Motivation and Emotion, 34, 158-167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11031-010-9164-y
53. Kenrick, D. T., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S. L., & Schaller, M. (2010). Renovating the pyramid of needs: Contemporary extensions built upon ancient foundations. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 292-314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691610369469
54. Leary, M. R., Kelly, K. M., Cottrell, C. A., & Schreindorfer, L. S. (2013). Construct validity of the need to belong scale: Mapping the nomological network. Journal of Personality Assessment, 95, 610-624. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2013.819511
55. Lehmann, V., Huis in't Veld, E. M., & Vingerhoets, A. J. (2013). The human and animal baby schema effect: Correlates of individual differences. Behavioural Processes, 94, 99-108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2013.01.001
56. Leuner, B., Glasper, E. R., & Gould, E. (2010). Parenting and plasticity. Trends in Neurosciences, 33, 465-473. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2010.07.003
57. Lishner, D. A., Batson, C. D., & Huss, E. (2011). Tenderness and sympathy: Distinct empathic emotions elicited by different forms of need. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 614-625. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167211403157
58. Lishner, D. A., Oceja, L. V., Stocks, E. L., & Zaspel, K. (2008). The effect of infant-like characteristics on empathic concern for adults in need. Motivation and Emotion, 32, 270 -277. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11031-008-9101-5
59. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0054346
60. McClelland, D. C. (1985). How motives, skills, and values determine what people do. American Psychologist, 40, 812- 825. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.40.7.812
61. McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. A., & Lowell, E. L. (1976). The achievement motive. New York, NY: Irvington.
62. McCrae, R. R., & John, O. P. (1992). An introduction to the five-factor model and its applications. Journal of Personality, 60, 175-215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1992.tb00970.x
63. McDougall, W. (1908). An introduction to social psychology. London, UK: Methuen. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/12261-000
64. Montepare, J. M., & Zebrowitz, L. A. (1998). Person perception comes of age: The salience and significance of age in social judgments. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 30, pp. 93-163). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
65. Murray, D. R., & Schaller, M. (2012). Threat(s) and conformity deconstructed: Perceived threat of infectious disease and its implications for conformist attitudes and behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 180-188. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.863
66. Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
67. Navarrete, C. D., & Fessler, D. M. T. (2006). Disease avoidance and ethnocentrism: The effects of disease vulnerability and disgust sensitivity on intergroup attitudes. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27, 270-282. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.12.001
68. O'Connor, B. P. (2000). SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer's MAP test. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 32, 396-402. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03200807
69. Olatunji, B. O., Williams, N. L., Tolin, D. F., Abramowitz, J. S., Sawchuk, C. N., Lohr, J. M., & Elwood, L. S. (2007). The Disgust Scale: Item analysis, factor structure, and suggestions for refinement. Psychological Assessment, 19, 281-297. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.19.3.281
70. Parsons, C. E., Young, K. S., Kumari, N., Stein, A., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2011). The motivational salience of infant faces is similar for men and women. PLoS ONE, 6, e20632. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0020632
71. Paulhus, D. L. (1998). Manual for the Paulhus deception scales: BIDR version 7. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
72. Penke, L., & Asendorpf, J. B. (2008). Beyond global sociosexual orientations: A more differentiated look at sociosexuality and its effects on courtship and romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1113-1135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.5.1113
73. Plotkin, R. (1983). Cognitive mediation in disciplinary actions among mothers who have abused or neglected their children: Dispositional and environmental factors (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Rochester, Rochester, NY.
74. Preston, S. D. (2013). The origins of altruism in offspring care. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 1305-1341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0031755
75. Reeve, J., & Lee, W. (2012). Neuroscience and human motivation. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of human motivation (pp. 365-380). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
76. Rickel, A. U., & Biasatti, L. L. (1982). Modification of the Block child rearing practices report. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 129-134. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(198201)38:1_129::AIDJCLP2270380120_3.0.CO;2-3
77. Schaller, M., Neuberg, S. L., Griskevicius, V., & Kenrick, D. T. (2010). Pyramid power: A reply to commentaries. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 335-337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691610369474
78. Schaller, M., & Park, J. H. (2011). The behavioral immune system (and why it matters). Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 99-103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963721411402596
79. Sherman, G. D., Haidt, J., & Coan, J. A. (2009). Viewing cute images increases behavioral carefulness. Emotion, 9, 282-286. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0014904
80. Simpson, J. A., & Gangestad, S. W. (1992). Sociosexuality and romantic partner choice. Journal of Personality, 60, 31-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1992.tb00264.x
81. Sprengelmeyer, R., Lewis, J., Hahn, A., & Perrett, D. I. (2013). Aesthetic and incentive salience of cute infant faces: Studies of observer sex, oral contraception and menstrual cycle. PLoS ONE, 8, e65844. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065844
82. Strathearn, L. (2011). Maternal neglect: Oxytocin, dopamine and the neurobiology of attachment. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 23, 1054-1065. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2826.2011.02228.x
83. Taylor, S. E., Klein, L. C., Lewis, B. P., Gruenewald, T. L., Gurung, R. A. R., & Updegraff, J. A. (2000). Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychological Review, 107, 411-429. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.107.3.411
84. Turner, N. E. (1998). The effect of common variance and structure pattern on random data Eigenvalues: Implications for the accuracy of parallel analysis. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 58, 541-568. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013164498058004001
85. Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., & Griskevicius, V. (2009). Microbes, mating, and morality: Individual differences in three functional domains of disgust. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 103-122. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0015474
86. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
87. Webster, D. M., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1994). Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1049-1062. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1049
88. Wiggins, J. S. (1995). Interpersonal adjective scales: Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
89. Winter, D. G. (1973). The power motive. New York, NY: Free Press.
90. Winter, D. G., John, O. P., Stewart, A. J., Klohnen, E. C., & Duncan, L. E. (1998). Traits and motives: Toward an integration of two traditions in personality research. Psychological Review, 105, 230-250. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.105.2.230
91. Wynne-Edwards, K. E., & Reburn, C. J. (2000). Behavioral endocrinology of mammalian fatherhood. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 15, 464-468. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(00)01972-8