Race-Ethnicity, Poverty, Urban Stressors, and Telomere Length in a Detroit Community-based Sample

Journal of Health and Social Behavior

Volumn 56, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 199-224

  Geronimus, Arline T ^a,b   Pearson, Jay A ^c   Linnenbringer, Erin ^b,d   Schulz, Amy J ^b   Reyes, Angela G ^e   Epel, Elissa S ^f   Lin, Jue ^f   Blackburn, Elizabeth H ^f  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^c DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^e Detroit Hispanic Development Corporation   (United States)

^f UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

aging; blacks; health disparities; Latinos; neighborhood; poverty; stressors; telomeres; urban; whites

Indexed keywords

ADULT; AFRICAN AMERICAN; CAUCASIAN; DEMOGRAPHY; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; MEXICAN AMERICAN; MICHIGAN; MIDDLE AGED; POVERTY; TELOMERE; URBAN POPULATION;

ADULT; AFRICAN AMERICANS; EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MEXICAN AMERICANS; MICHIGAN; MIDDLE AGED; POVERTY; RESIDENCE CHARACTERISTICS; TELOMERE; URBAN POPULATION;

EID: 84925079270     PISSN: 00221465     EISSN: 21506000     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0022146515582100     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. Adler Nancy,Pantell Matt S.,O’Donovan Aoife,Blackburn Elizabeth,Cawthon Richard,Koster Annemarie,Opresko Patricia,Newman Anne,Harris Tamara B.,Epel Elissa.Educational Attainment and Late Life Telomere Length in the Health, Aging and Body Composition Study.Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2013;27 (1): 15-21
2. Allsopp Richard C.,Vaziri Homayoun,Patterson Christopher,Goldstein Samuel,Younglai Edward V.,Futcher A. Bruce,Greider Carol W.,Harley Calvin B.Telomere Length Predicts Replicative Capacity of Human Fibroblasts.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1992;89 (21): 10114-18
3. AnnieE.Casey Foundation. 2014. The 2014 Kids Count Data Book. Baltimore, MD: Annie E. Casey Foundation. Retrieved October5, 2014 (http://www.aecf.org/resources/the-2014-kids-count-data-book/).
4. Aviv Abraham,Bogden John D.The Future of Aging: Pathways to Human Life Extension. Fahy G. M.Vest M. D.Coles L. S.Harris S. B., ed. New York: Springer; 2010:573-86.
5. Aviv Abraham,Chen Wei,Gardner Jeffery P.,Kimura Masayuki,Brimacombe Michael,Cao Xiaojian,Srinivasan Sathanur R.,Berenson Gerald S.Leukocyte Telomere Dynamics: Longitudinal Findings among Young Adults in the Bogalusa Heart Study.American Journal of Epidemiology. 2009;169 (3): 323-29
6. Baird Duncan M.,Davis Terence,Rowson Jan,Jones Christopher J.,Kipling David.Normal Telomere Erosion Rates at the Single Cell Level in Werner Syndrome Fibroblast Cells.Human Molecular Genetics. 2004;13 (14): 1515-24
7. Barnard John,Rubin Donald B.,Schenker NathanielInternational Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Science. Smelser N. J.Baltes P. B., ed. New York: Pergamon; 2001:10204-10.
8. Bauer Moises E.,Jeckel Cristina M.,Luz Clarice.The Role of Stress Factors during Aging of the Immune System.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2009;1153:139-52
9. Becares Laia,Nazroo James,Stafford Mai.The Buffering Effects of Ethnic Density on Experienced Racism and Health.Health & Place. 2009;15 (3): 670-78
10. Beck Aaron T.,Weissman Arlene,Lester David,Trexler Larry.The Measurement of Pessimism: The Hopelessness Scale.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1974;42 (6): 861-65
11. Benetos Athanase,Okuda Koji,Lajemi Malika,Kimura Masayuki,Thomas Frederique,Skurnick Joan,Labat Carlos,Bean Kathryn,Aviv Abraham.Telomere Length as an Indicator of Biological Aging: The Gender Effect and Relation with Pulse Pressure and Pulse Wave Velocity.Hypertension. 2001;37 (2 Pt 2): 381-85
12. Benjamini Yoav,Hochberg Yosef.Controlling the False Discovery Rate—A Practical and Powerful Approach to Multiple Testing.Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B-Methodological. 1995;57 (1): 289-300
13. Bhugra Dinesh,Becker Matthew A.Migration, Cultural Bereavement and Cultural Identity.World Psychiatry. 2005;4 (1): 18-24
14. Blackburn Elizabeth H.,Greider Carol W.,Szostak Jack W.Telomeres and Telomerase: The Path from Maize, Tetrahymena and Yeast to Human Cancer and Aging.Nature Medicine. 2006;12 (10): 1133-38
15. Bojesen Stig E.Telomeres and Human Health.Journal of Internal Medicine. 2013;274 (5): 399-413
16. Brubaker RogersEthnicity without Groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 2004:
17. Burton Linda M.,Whitfield Keith E.Weathering toward Poorer Health in Later Life: Comorbidity in Low-income Urban Familes.Public Policy Aging Reports. 2003;13 (3): 8-13
18. Campisi Judith.Senescent Cells, Tumor Suppression, and Organismal Aging: Good Citizens, Bad Neighbors.Cell. 2005;120 (4): 513-22
19. Carroll Judith E.,Diez-Roux Ana V.,Adler Nancy E.,Seeman Teresa E.Socioeconomic Factors and Leukocyte Telomere Length in a Multi-ethnic Sample: Findings from the Multi-ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA).Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2013;28:108-14
20. Cawthon Richard M.Telomere Measurement by Quantitative PCR.Nucleic Acids Research. 2002;30 (10): e47
21. Chan Simon R. W. L.,Blackburn Elizabeth H.Telomeres and Telomerase.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 2004;359 (1441): 109-21
22. Cherkas Lynn F.,Aviv Abraham,Valdes Ann M.,Hunkin Janice L.,Gardner Jeffery P.,Surdulescu Gabriela L.,Kimura Masayuki,Spector Tim D.The Effects of Social Status on Biological Aging as Measured by White-blood-cell Telomere Length.Aging Cell. 2006;5 (5): 361-65
23. Colen Cynthia G.Addressing Racial Disparities in Health Using Life Course Perspectives.Du Bois Review. 2011;8 (1): 89-94
24. Colen Cynthia G.,Geronimus Arline T.,Bound John,James Sherman A.Maternal Upward Socioeconomic Mobility and Black-White Disparities in Infant Birthweight.American Journal of Public Health. 2006;96 (11): 2032-39
25. Collins James W.,Papacek Ellen,Schulte Nancy F.,Drolet Amiee.Differing Postneonatal Mortality Rates of Mexican-American Infants with United-States-born and Mexico-born Mothers in Chicago.Ethnicity & Disease. 2001;11 (4): 606-13
26. Damjanovic Amanda K.,Yang Yinhua,Glaser Ronald,Kiecolt-Glaser Janice K.,Nguyen Huy,Laskowski Bryon,Zou Yixiao,Beversdorf David Q.,Weng Nan-ping.Accelerated Telomere Erosion Is Associated with a Declining Immune Function of Caregivers of Alzheimer’s Disease Patients.Journal of Immunology. 2007;179 (6): 4249-54
27. Demissie Serkalem,Levy Daniel,Benjamin Emelia J.,Cupples L. Adrienne,Gardner Jeffery P.,Herbert A.,Kimura Masayuki,Larson Martin G.,Meigs James B.,Keaney John F.,Aviv Abraham.Insulin Resistance, Oxidative Stress, Hypertension, and Leukocyte Telomere Length in Men from the Framingham Heart Study.Aging Cell. 2006;5 (4): 325-30
28. Diez Roux Ana V.,Ranjit Nalini,Jenny Nancy S.,Shea Steven,Cushman Mary,Fitzpatrick Annette,Seeman Teresa.Race-ethnicity and Telomere Length in the Multi-ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis.Aging Cell. 2009;8 (3): 251-57
29. Drury Stacy S.,Theall Katherine,Gleason Mary M.,Smyke Anna T.,De Vivo Immaculata,Wong Jason Y.,Fox Nathan A.,Zeanah Charles H.,Nelson Charles A.Telomere Length and Early Severe Social Deprivation: Linking Early Adversity and Cellular Aging.Molecular Psychiatry. 2012;17 (7): 719-27
30. Effros Rita B.T Cell Replicative Senescence: Pleiotropic Effects on Human Aging.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2004;1019:123-26
31. Effros Rita B.,Dagarag Mirabelle,Spaulding Carolyn,Man Janice.The Role of Cd8+ T-cell Replicative Senescence in Human Aging.Immunological Reviews. 2005;205:147-57
32. Epel Elissa S.,Blackburn Elizabeth H.,Lin Jue,Dhabhar Firdaus S.,Adler Nancy E.,Morrow Jason D.,Cawthon Richard M.Accelerated Telomere Shortening in Response to Life Stress.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2004;101 (49): 17312-15
33. Epel Elissa S.,Lin Jue,Wilhelm Frank H.,Wolkowitz Owen M.,Cawthon Richard,Adler Nancy E.,Dolbier Christyn,Mendes Wendy B.,Blackburn Elizabeth H.Cell Aging in Relation to Stress Arousal and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors.Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2006;31 (3): 277-87
34. Fraga Mario F.,Ballestar Esteban,Paz Maria F.,Ropero Santiago,Setien Fernando,Ballestar Maria L.,Heine-Suner Damia,Cigudosa Juan C.,Urioste Miguel,Benitez Javier,Boix-Chornet Manuel,Sanchez-Aguilera Abel,Ling Charlotte,Carlsson Emma,Poulsen Pernille,Vaag Alan,Stephan Zarko,Spector Tim D.,Wu Yue-Zhong,Plass Christoph,Esteller Manel.Epigenetic Differences Arise during the Lifetime of Monozygotic Twins.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2005;102 (30): 10604-09
35. Frazier Emma L.,Franks A. L.,Sanderson Lee M.Using Chronic Disease Data: A Handbook For Public Health Practitioners. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 1992:
36. Frenck Robert W.,Blackburn Elizabeth H.,Shannon Kevin M.The Rate of Telomere Sequence Loss in Human Leukocytes Varies with Age.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1998;95 (10): 5607-10
37. Friedrich Ulrike,Griese Ernst-Ulrich,Schwab Matthias,Fritz Peter,Thon Klaus-Peter,Klotz Ulrich.Telomere Length in Different Tissues of Elderly Patients.Mechanisms of Ageing and Development. 2000;119 (3): 89-99
38. García Alma M.Narratives of Mexican American Women: Emergent Identities of the Second Generation. Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press; 2004:
39. Gee Gilbert C.A Multilevel Analysis of the Relationship between Institutional and Individual Racial Discrimination and Health Status.American Journal of Public Health. 2002;92 (4): 615-23
40. Gee Gilbert C.,Chen Juan,Spencer Michael S.,See Sartia,Kuester Oliva A.,Tran Diem,Takeuchi David.Social Support as a Buffer for Perceived Unfair Treatment among Filipino Americans: Differences between San Francisco and Honolulu.American Journal of Public Health. 2006;96 (4): 677-84
41. Gee Gilbert C.,Payne-Sturges Devon C.Environmental Health Disparities: A Framework Integrating Psychosocial and Environmental Concepts.Environmental Health Perspectives. 2004;112 (17): 1645-53
42. Gentry Elieen M.,Kalsbeek William D.,Hogelin Gary C.,Jones Jack T.,Gaines Karen L.,Forman Michele R.,Marks James S.,Trowbridge Fredrick L.The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveys: II. Design, Methods, and Estimates from Combined State Data.American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 1985;1 (6): 9-14
43. Geronimus Arline T.On Teenage Childbearing and Neonatal Mortality in the United States.Population and Development Review. 1987;13 (2): 245-79
44. Geronimus Arline T.The Weathering Hypothesis and the Health of African-American Women and Infants: Evidence and Speculations.Ethnicity & Disease. 1992;2 (3): 207-21
45. Geronimus Arline T.To Mitigate, Resist, or Undo: Addressing Structural Influences on the Health of Urban Populations.American Journal of Public Health. 2000;90 (6): 867-72
46. Geronimus Arline T.Understanding and Eliminating Racial Inequalities in Women’s Health in the United States: The Role of the Weathering Conceptual Framework.Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association. 2001;56 (4): 133 149-36 50
47. Geronimus Arline T.Deep Integration: Letting the Epigenome out of the Bottle without Losing Sight of the Structural Origins of Population Health.American Journal of Public Health. 2013a;103:S56-63
48. Geronimus Arline T.Mapping “Race” and Inequality: A Critical Reader on Health Disparities Research, Critical Issues in Health and Medicine. Gomez L.Gomez N., ed. Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press; 2013b:163-78.
49. Geronimus Arline T.,Bound John,Colen Cynthia G.Excess Black Mortality in the United States and in Selected Black and White High-poverty Areas, 1980–2000.American Journal of Public Health. 2011;101 (4): 720-29
50. Geronimus Arline T.,Bound John,Keene Danya,Hicken Margaret.Black-white Differences in Age Trajectories of Hypertension Prevalence among Adult Women and Men, 1999–2002.Ethnicity & Disease. 2007;17 (1): 40-48
51. Geronimus Arline T.,Bound John,Ro Annie.Residential Mobility across Local Areas in the United States and the Geographic Distribution of the Healthy Population.Demography. 2014;51 (3): 777-809
52. Geronimus Arline T.,Bound John,Waidmann Timothy A.Poverty, Time, and Place: Variation in Excess Mortality across Selected US Populations, 1980–1990.Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 1999;53 (6): 325-34
53. Geronimus Arline T.,Hicken Margaret,Keene Danya,Bound John.‘Weathering’ and Age Patterns of Allostatic Load Scores among Blacks and Whites in the United States.American Journal of Public Health. 2006;96 (5): 826-33
54. Geronimus Arline T.,Hicken Margaret T.,Pearson Jay A.,Seashols Sarah J.,Brown Kelly L.,Cruz Tracey D.Do U.S. Black Women Experience Stress-related Accelerated Biological Aging?: A Novel Theory and First Population-based Test of Black-White Differences in Telomere Length.Human Nature. 2010;21 (1): 19-38
55. Geronimus Arline T.,Snow Rachel C.Women & Health. Goldman M. B.Rexrode K. M.Troisi R., ed. London: Academic Press; 2013:21-32.
56. Geronimus Arline T.,Thompson J. Phillip.To Denigrate, Ignore, or Disrupt: Racial Inequality in Health and the Impact of a Policy-induced Breakdown of African-American Communities.Du Bois Review. 2004;1 (2): 247-79
57. Halpern David,Nazroo James.The Ethnic Density Effect: Results from a National Community Study of England and Wales.International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 1999; (46): 34-46
58. Harris Sarah E.,Deary Ian J.,MacIntyre Alan,Lamb Kelly J.,Radhakrishnan Kamaraj,Starr John M.,Whalley Lawrence J.,Shiels Paul G.The Association between Telomere Length, Physical Health, Cognitive Ageing, and Mortality in Non-demented Older People.Neuroscience Letters. 2006;406 (3): 260-64
59. Harrison David,Griendling Kathy K.,Landmesser Ulf,Hornig Burkhard,Drexler Helmut.Role of Oxidative Stress in Atherosclerosis.The American Journal of Cardiology. 2003;91 (3A): 7A-11A
60. Hatzenbuehler Mark L.,Keyes Katherine M.,Hasin Deborah S.State-level Policies and Psychiatric Morbidity in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations.American Journal of Public Health. 2009;99 (12): 2275-81
61. Hausman Jerry.Specification Tests in Econometrics.Econometrica. 1978;46 (6): 1251-71
62. Helflin Colleen M.,Pattillo Mary.Poverty in the Family: Race, Siblings, and Socioeconomic Heterogeneity.Social Science Research. 2006;35 (4): 804-22
63. Hicks-Bartlett SharonCoping with Poverty. Danziger S.Lin C., ed. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; 2000:27-52.
64. House James S.,Lepkowski James M.,Kinney Ann M.,Mero Richard P.,Kessler Ronald C.,Herzog A. Regula.The Social Stratification of Aging and Health.Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1994;35 (3): 213-34
65. Hunt Steven C.,Chen Wei,Gardner Jeffery P.,Kimura Masayuki,Srinivasan Sathanur R.,Eckfeldt John H.,Berenson Gerald S.,Aviv Abraham.Leukocyte Telomeres Are Longer in African Americans Than in Whites: The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Family Heart Study and the Bogalusa Heart Study.Aging Cell. 2008;7 (4): 451-58
66. Israel Barbara A.,Schulz Amy J.,Estrada-Martinez Lorena,Zenk Shannon N.,Viruell-Fuentes Edna,Villarruel Antonia M.,Stokes Carmen.Engaging Urban Residents in Assessing Neighborhood Environments and Their Implications for Health.Journal of Urban Health. 2006;83 (3): 523-39
67. Iwama Hiroshi,Ohyashiki Kazuma,Ohyashiki Junko H.,Hayashi Shigifumi,Yahata Naoyuki,Ando Keiko,Toyama Keisuke,Hoshika Akinori,Takasaki Masaru,Mori Mayumi,Shay Jerry W.Telomeric Length and Telomerase Activity Vary with Age in Peripheral Blood Cells Obtained from Normal Individuals.Human Genetics. 1998;102 (4): 397-402
68. Jackson James S.,Knight Katherine M.,Rafferty Jane A.Race and Unhealthy Behaviors: Chronic Stress, the HPA Axis, and Physical and Mental Health Disparities over the Life Course.American Journal of Public Health. 2010;100 (5): 933-39
69. Jackson James S.,Williams David R.Detroit Area Study, 1995: Social Influences on Health, Stress, Racism, and Health Protective Resources. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research; 2002:
70. James Sherman A.Racial and Ethnic Differences in Infant Mortality and Low Birth Weight. A Psychosocial Critique.Annals of Epidemiology. 1993;3 (2): 130-36
71. James Sherman A.John Henryism and the Health of African-Americans.Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry. 1994;18 (2): 163-82
72. Jones Camara P.Levels of Racism: A Theoretic Framework and a Gardener’s Tale.American Journal of Public Health. 2000;90 (8): 1212-15
73. Kaestner Robert,Pearson Jay A.,Keene Danya,Geronimus Arline T.Stress, Allostatic Load and Health of Mexican Immigrants.Social Science Quarterly. 2009;90 (5): 1089-111
74. Kananen Laura,Surakka Ida,Pirkola Sami,Suvisaari Jaana,Lonnqvist Jouko,Peltonen Leena,Ripatti Samuli,Hovatta Iiris.Childhood Adversities Are Associated with Shorter Telomere Length at Adult Age Both in Individuals with an Anxiety Disorder and Controls.PLoS One. 2010;5 (5): e10826
75. Kaufman Jay S.,Cooper Richard S.,McGee Daniel L.Socioeconomic Status and Health in Blacks and Whites: The Problem of Residual Confounding and the Resiliency of Race.Epidemiology. 1997;8 (6): 621-28
76. Keene Danya,Geronimus Arline T.‘Weatherin’ HOPE VI: The Importance of Evaluating the Population Health Impact of Public Housing Demolition and Displacement.Journal of Urban Health. 2011;88 (3): 417-35
77. Keene Danya,Padilla Mark.Race, Class and the Stigma of Place: Moving to ‘Opportunity’ in Eastern Iowa.Health and Place. 2010;16 (6): 1216-23
78. Khansari Nemat,Shakiba Yadollah,Mahmoudi Mahdi.Chronic Inflammation and Oxidative Stress as a Major Cause of Age-related Diseases and Cancer.Recent Patents on Inflammation & Allergy Drug Discovery. 2009;3 (1): 73-80
79. Kim Jinyoung,Miech Richard.The Black-White Difference in Age Trajectories of Functional Health over the Life Course.Social Science & Medince. 2009;68 (4): 717-25
80. Kuh Diana.A Life Course Perspective on Telomere Length and Social Inequalities in Aging.Aging Cell. 2006;5 (6): 579-80
81. Lin Jue,Epel Elissa,Cheon Joshua,Kroenke Candyce,Sinclair Elizabeth,Bigos Marty,Wolkowitz Owen,Mellon Synthia,Blackburn Elizabeth.Analyses and Comparisons of Telomerase Activity and Telomere Length in Human T and B Cells: Insights for Epidemiology of Telomere Maintenance.Journal of Immunological Methods. 2010;352 (1–2): 71-80
82. Lindsey Janet,McGill Niolette I.,Lindsey Leon A.,Green Daryll K.,Cooke Howard J.In Vivo Loss of Telomeric Repeats with Age in Humans.Mutatation Research/DNAging. 1991;256 (1): 45-48
83. Markides Kyriakos S.,Eschbach Karl.Aging, Migration and Mortality: Current Status of Research on the Hispanic Paradox.Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Social Sciences and Psychological Sciences. 2005;60B (Special Issue II): 68-75
84. McEwen Bruce S.Protective and Damaging Effects of Stress Mediators.New England Journal of Medicine. 1998a;338 (3): 171-79
85. McEwen Bruce S.Stress, Adaptation, and Disease. Allostasis and Allostatic Load.Annals of the New York Academy of Science. 1998b;840:33-44
86. McEwen Bruce S.,Seeman Teresa.Protective and Damaging Effects of Mediators of Stress. Elaborating and Testing the Concepts of Allostasis and Allostatic Load.Annals of the New York Academy of Science. 1999;896:30-47
87. Metcalfe Judith A.,Parkhill Julian,Campbell Louise,Stacey Michael,Biggs Paul,Byrd Philip J.,Taylor A. Malcolm.Accelerated Telomere Shortening in Ataxia Telangiectasia.Nature Genetics. 1996;13 (3): 350-53
88. Mitchell Colter,Hobcraft John,McLanahan Sara S.,Siegeld Susan R.,Berg Arthur,Brooks-Gunn Jeanne,Garfinkel Irwin,Notterman Daniel.Social Disadvantage, Genetic Sensitivity, and Children’s Telomere Length.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2014;111 (16): 5944-49
89. Mitchell James R.,Wood Emily,Collins Kathleen.A Telomerase Component Is Defective in the Human Disease Dyskeratosis Congenita.Nature. 1999;402 (6761): 551-55
90. MontoyaMichael J.2007. “Do Genes Explain Diabetes Health Disparities between Ethnic Groups?” Endocrine Today. Retrieved April6, 2015 (http://www.healio.com/endocrinology/news/print/endocrine-today/%7B00295910-dde1-4643-b3d7-3d3dc6d046c0%7D/do-genes-explain-diabetes-health-disparities-between-ethnic-groups).
91. Needham Belinda L.,Adler Nancy,Gregorich Steven,Rehkopf David,Lin Jue,Blackburn Elizabeth H.,Epel Elissa S.Socioeconomic Status, Health Behavior, and Leukocyte Telomere Length in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999–2002.Social Science & Medicine. 2013;85:1-8
92. Needham Belinda L.,Carroll Judith E.,Diez-Roux. Ana V.,Fitzpatrick Annette L.,Moore Karl,Seeman Teresa E.Neighborhood Characteristics and Leukocyte Telomere Length: The Multi-ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis.Health and Place. 2014;28:166-72
93. Parks Christine G.,Miller Diane B.,McCanlies Erin C.,Cawthon Richard M.,Andrew Michael E.,DeRoo Lisa A.,Sandler Dale P.Telomere Length, Current Perceived Stress, and Urinary Stress Hormones in Women.Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention. 2009;18 (2): 551-60
94. Pattillo-McCoy MaryBlack Picket Fences: Privilege and Peril among the Black Middle Class. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; 1999:
95. Pearson Jay A.Can’t Buy Me Whiteness: New Lessons from the Titanic on Race, Ethnicity, and Health.DuBois Review: Social Science Research on Race. 2008;5 (1): 27-47
96. Pearson Jay A.,Geronimus Arline T.Race/Ethnicity, Socioeconomic Characteristics, Coethnic Social Ties, and Health: Evidence from the National Jewish Population Survey.American Journal of Public Health. 2011;101 (7): 1314-21
97. Peck Jamie.Austerity Urbanism.City. 2012;16 (6): 626-55
98. Reed Adolph,Chowkwanyun Merlin.Race, Class, Crisis: The Discourse of Racial Disparite and Its Analytic Discontents.Socialist Register. 2011;48:149-75
99. Rubin Donald B.Matching to Remove Bias in Observational Studies.Biometrics. 1973a;29 (1): 159-83
100. Rubin Donald B.The Use of Matched Sampling and Regression Adjustment to Remove Bias in Observational Studies.Biometrics. 1973b;29 (1): 185-203
101. Rubin Donald B.Multiple Imputation after 18+ Years.Journal of the American Statistical Association. 1996;91 (434): 473-89
102. Sapolsky Robert M.,Romero L. Michael,Munck Allan U.How Do Glucocorticoids Influence Stress Responses? Integrating Permissive, Suppressive, Stimulatory, and Preparative Actions.Endocrine Reviews. 2000;21 (1): 55-89
103. Schafer Joseph L.Analysis of Incomplete Multivariate Data. London: Chapman & Hall; 1997:
104. Schulz Amy,Williams David,Israel Barbara,Becker Adam,Parker Edith,James Sherman A.,Jackson James.Unfair Treatment, Neighborhood Effects, and Mental Health in the Detroit Metropolitan Area.Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 2000;41 (3): 314-32
105. Schulz Amy J.,Zenk Shannon N.,Kannan Srimathi,Israel Barbara A.,Koch Mary A.,Stokes CarmenMethods for Conducting Community Based Participatory Research for Health. Israel B. A.Eng E.Schulz A. J.Parker E., ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 2005b:402-06.
106. Schulz Amy J.,Zenk Shannon N.,Israel Barbara A.,Mentz Graciela,Stokes Carmen,Galea Sandro.Do Neighborhood Economic Characteristics, Racial Composition, and Residential Stability Predict Perceptions of Stress Associated with the Physical and Social Environment? Findings from a Multilevel Analysis in Detroit.Journal of Urban Health. 2008;85 (5): 642-61
107. Schuster Tonya L.,Kessler Ronald C.,Aseltine Robert H.Supportive Interactions, Negative Interactions, and Depressed Mood.American Journal of Community Psychology. 1990;18 (3): 423-38
108. Seeman Teresa E.,Epel Elissa,Gruenewald Tara,Karlamangla Arun,McEwen Bruce S.Socio-economic Differentials in Peripheral Biology: Cumulative Allostatic Load.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2010;1186:223-39
109. Seeman Teresa E.,Singer Burton H.,Rowe John W.,Horwitz Ralph I.,McEwen Bruce S.Price of Adaptation—Allostatic Load and Its Health Consequences. Macarthur Studies of Successful Aging.Archives of Internal Medicine. 1997;157 (19): 2259-68
110. Shapiro Thomas M.The Hidden Cost of Being African American. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004:
111. Spielberger Charles,Johnson E.,Russel S.,Crane R.,Jacobs Q.,Warden T.Anger and Hostility in Cardiovascular and Behavioral Disorders. Cheaney M.Rosenman R., ed. New York: Hemisphere; 1985:5-30.
112. Stack Carol M.All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community. New York: Basic Books; 1974:
113. Steptoe Andrew,Feldman Pamela J.,Kunz Sabine,Owen Natalie,Willemsen Gonneke,Marmot Michael.Stress Responsivity and Socioeconomic Status: A Mechanism for Increased Cardiovascular Disease Risk?.European Heart Journal. 2002;23 (22): 1757-63
114. Steptoe Andrew,Hamer Mark,Butcher Lee,Lin Jue,Brydon Lena,Kivimaki Mika,Marmot Michael,Blackburn Elizabeth,Erusalimsky Jorge D.Educational Attainment but Not Measures of Current Socioeconomic Circumstances Are Associated with Leukocyte Telomere Length in Healthy Older Men and Women.Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2011;25 (7): 1292-98
115. Sugrue Thomas J.The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 1996:
116. Theall Katherine P.,Brett Zoë H.,Shirtcliff Elizabeth A.,Dunn Erin C.,Drury Stacy S.Neighborhood Disorder and Telomeres: Connecting Children’s Exposure to Community Level Stress and Cellular Response.Social Science & Medicine. 2013;85 (1): 50-58
117. Tomiyama A. Janet,O’Donovan Aoife,Lin Jue,Puterman Eli,Lazaro Alanie,Chan Jessica,Dhabhar Firdaus S.,Wolkowitz Owen,Kirschbaum Clemens,Blackburn Elizabeth H.,Epel Elissa.Does Cellular Aging Relate to Patterns of Allostasis? An Examination of Basal and Stress Reactive HPA Axis Activity and Telomere Length.Physiology & Behavior. 2012;106 (1): 40-45
118. Tyrka Audrey R.,Price Lawrence H.,Kao Hung-Teh,Porton Barbara,Marsella Sarah A.,Carpenter Linda L.Childhood Maltreatment and Telomere Shortening: Preliminary Support for an Effect of Early Stress on Cellular Aging.Biological Psychiatry. 2010;67 (6): 531-34
119. UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2014. “Detroit: Disconnecting Water from People Who Cannot Pay—An Affront to Human Rights, Say UN Experts.” Retrieved October6, 2014 (http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=14777&LangID=E).
120. Valdes Ann M.,Andrew Toby,Gardner Jeffery P.,Kimura Masayuki,Oelsner E.,Cherkas Lynn F.,Aviv Abraham,Spector Tim D.Obesity, Cigarette Smoking, and Telomere Length in Women.Lancet. 2005;366 (9486): 662-64
121. Vaziri Homayoun,Schachter Francios,Uchida Irene,Wei Lan,Zhu Xiaoming,Effros Rita,Cohen Daniel,Harley Calvin B.Loss of Telomeric DNA during Aging of Normal and Trisomy 21 Human Lymphocytes.American Journal of Human Genetics. 1993;52 (4): 661-67
122. Viruell-Fuentes Edna A.Beyond Acculturation: Immigration, Discrimination, and Health Research among Mexicans in the United States.Social Science & Medicine. 2007;65 (7): 1524-35
123. Viruell-Fuentes Edna A.,Miranda Patricia Y.,Abdulrahim Sawsan.More Than Culture: Structural Racism, Intersectionality Theory, and Immigrant Health.Social Science & Medicine. 2012;75 (12): 2099-106
124. Waters Mary C.,Ueda Reed,Marrow Helen B.The New Americans: A Handbook to Immigration since 1965. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 2007:
125. Williams David R.,Yan Yu,Jackson James S.,Anderson Norman B.Racial Differences in Physical and Mental Health: Socio-economic Status, Stress and Discrimination.Journal of Health Psychology. 1997;2 (3): 335-51
126. Wynn Robert F.,Cross Michael A.,Hatton Claire,Will Andrew M.,Lashford Linda S.,Dexter T. Michael,Testa Nydia G.Accelerated Telomere Shortening in Young Recipients of Allogeneic Bone-marrow Transplants.Lancet. 1998;351 (9097): 178-81
127. Yankiwski Victor,Marciniak Robert A.,Guarente Leonard,Neff Norma F.Nuclear Structure in Normal and Bloom Syndrome Cells.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2000;97 (10): 5214-19
128. Zalli Argita,Carvalho Livia A.,Lin Jue,Hamer Mark,Erusalimsky Jorge D.,Blackburn Elizabeth H.,Steptoe Andrew.Shorter Telomeres with High Telomerase Activity Are Associated with Raised Allostatic Load and Impoverished Psychosocial Resources.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2014;111 (12): 4519-24
129. Zhu Haidong,Wang Xiaoling,Gutin Bernard,Davis Catherine L.,Keeton Daniel,Thomas Jeffery,Stallmann-Jorgensen Inger,Mooken Grace,Bundy Vanessa,Snieder Harold,van der Harst Pim,Dong Yanbin.Leukocyte Telomere Length in Healthy Caucasian and African-American Adolescents: Relationships with Race, Sex, Adiposity, Adipokines, and Physical Activity.The Journal of Pediatrics. 2011;158 (2): 215-20