The Ethnoepidemiology of Obesity

Canadian Journal of Cardiology

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 131-141

  Valera, Beatriz ^a   Sohani, Zahra ^c,d   Rana, Ayesha ^c,d   Poirier, Paul ^a,b   Anand, Sonia S ^c,d,e  

^a LAVAL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL   (Canada)

^c MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^d MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^e MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ABDOMINAL OBESITY; CARDIOMETABOLIC RISK; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; ETHNIC DIFFERENCE; ETHNIC GROUP; FAST FOOD; FOOD INTAKE; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; HEALTH BEHAVIOR; HUMAN; INSULIN RESISTANCE; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PHYSICAL INACTIVITY; PREVALENCE; REVIEW; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; SOCIAL STATUS; BODY MASS; CANADA; EPIDEMIOLOGY; ETHNOLOGY; SOCIOECONOMICS;

BODY MASS INDEX; CANADA; ETHNIC GROUPS; HUMANS; OBESITY; OVERWEIGHT; PREVALENCE; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS;

EID: 84924975349     PISSN: 0828282X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cjca.2014.10.005     Document Type: Review

References (155)

1. Finucane M.M., Stevens G.A., Cowan M.J., et al. National, regional, and global trends in body-mass index since 1980: systematic analysis of health examination surveys and epidemiological studies with 960 country-years and 9.1 million participants. Lancet 2011, 377:557-567.
2. Ng M., Fleming T., Robinson M., et al. Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 2014, 384:766-781.
3. Tremblay M.S., Pérez C., Ardern C.I., Bryan S.N., Katzmarzyk P.T. Obesity, overweight and ethnicity. Health Rep 2005, 16:23-34.
4. World Health Organization The Asia-Pacific perspective: redefining obesity and its treatment 2000, 56. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
5. Statistics Canada. Aboriginal peoples in Canada: First Nations people, Métis and Inuit. National household survey, 2011. Catalogue no. 99-011-X2011001. Available at: . Accessed May 1, 2014. http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/as-sa/99-011-x/99-011-x2011001-eng.pdf.
6. Statistics Canada. Immigration and ethnocultural diversity in Canada household survey, 2011. Catalogue no. 99-010-X2011001. Available at: . Accessed May 1, 2014. http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/as-sa/99-010-x/99-010-x2011001-eng.pdf.
7. Razak F., Anand S.S., Shannon H., et al. Defining obesity cut points in a multiethnic population. Circulation 2007, 115:2111-2118.
8. Amed S., Dean H.J., Panagiotopoulos C., et al. Type 2 diabetes, medication-induced diabetes, and monogenic diabetes in Canadian children: A prospective national surveillance study. Diabetes Care 2010, 33:786-791.
9. Ng C., Young T.K., Corey P.N. Associations of television viewing, physical activity and dietary behaviours with obesity in aboriginal and non-aboriginal Canadian youth. Public Health Nutr 2010, 13:1430-1437.
10. Wahi G., Anand S.S. Race/ethnicity, obesity, and related cardio-metabolic risk factors: a life-course perspective. Curr Cardiovasc Risk Rep 2013, 7:326-335.
11. Cornier M.A., Després J.P., Davis N., et al. Assessing adiposity: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2011, 124:1996-2019.
12. van der A.D.L., Nooyens A.C., van Duijnhoven F.J., Verschuren M.M., Boer J.M. All-cause mortality risk of metabolically healthy abdominal obese individuals: the EPIC-MORGEN study. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2014, 22:557-564.
13. He W., Zhang S., Song A., et al. Greater abdominal fat accumulation is associated with higher metabolic risk in Chinese than in white people: an ethnicity study. PLoS One 2013, 8:e58688.
14. Foulds H.J., Bredin S.S., Warburton D.E. Greater prevalence of select chronic conditions among aboriginal and South Asian participants from an ethnically diverse convenience sample of British Columbians. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2012, 37:1212-1221.
15. Anand S.S., Yusuf S., Vuksan V., et al. Differences in risk factors, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular disease between ethnic groups in Canada: the Study of Health Assessment and Risk in Ethnic groups (SHARE). Lancet 2000, 356:279-284.
16. Stunkard A.J., Foch T.T., Hrubec Z. Atwin study of human obesity. JAMA 1986, 256:51-54.
17. Lear S.A., Kohli S., Bondy G.P., Tchernof A., Sniderman A.D. Ethnic variation in fat and lean body mass and the association with insulin resistance. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2009, 94:4696-4702.
18. Lear S.A., Humphries K.H., Kohli S., et al. Visceral adipose tissue accumulation differs according to ethnic background: results of the Multicultural Community Health Assessment Trial (M-CHAT). Am J Clin Nutr 2007, 86:53-59.
19. Anand S.S., Tarnopolsky M.A., Rashid S., et al. Adipocyte hypertrophy, fatty liver and metabolic risk factors in South Asians: the Molecular Study of Health and Risk in Ethnic Groups (mol-SHARE). PLoS One 2011, 6:e22112.
20. Katzmarzyk P.T., Heymsfield S.B., Bouchard C. Clinical utility of visceral adipose tissue for the identification of cardiometabolic risk in white and African American adults. Am J Clin Nutr 2013, 97:480-486.
21. Despres J.P. Body fat distribution and risk of cardiovascular disease: an update. Circulation 2012, 126:1301-1313.
22. Yajnik C.S. Fetal programming of diabetes: still so much to learn!. Diabetes Care 2010, 33:1146-1148.
23. Lindberg S.M., Adams A.K., Prince R.J. Early predictors of obesity and cardiovascular risk among American Indian children. Matern Child Health J 2012, 16:1879-1886.
24. Tam W.H., Ma R.C., Yang X., et al. Glucose intolerance and cardiometabolic risk in children exposed to maternal gestational diabetes mellitus in utero. Pediatrics 2008, 122:1229-1234.
25. Chen Y.C., Chen P.C., Hsieh W.S., et al. Environmental factors associated with overweight and obesity in taiwanese children. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2012, 26:561-571.
26. Anand S.S., Vasudevan A., Gupta M., et al. Rationale and design of South Asian Birth Cohort (START): a Canada-India collaborative study. BMC Public Health 2013, 13:79.
27. Wahi G., Wilson J., Miller R., et al. Aboriginal birth cohort (ABC): a prospective cohort study of early life determinants of adiposity and associated risk factors among aboriginal people in Canada. BMC Public Health 2013, 13:608.
28. Blum J.W., Jacobsen D.J., Donnelly J.E. Beverage consumption patterns in elementary school aged children across a two-year period. JAm Coll Nutr 2005, 24:93-98.
29. Zienczuk N., Young T.K., Cao Z.R., Egeland G.M. Dietary correlates of an at-risk BMI among Inuit adults in the Canadian high arctic: cross-sectional international polar year Inuit health survey, 2007-2008. Nutr J 2012, 11:73.
30. Bastien M., Poirier P., Lemieux I., Després J.P. Overview of epidemiology and contribution of obesity to cardiovascular disease. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2014, 56:369-381.
31. Sharma S., Cao X., Roache C., et al. Assessing dietary intake in a population undergoing a rapid transition in diet and lifestyle: the Arctic Inuit in Nunavut, Canada. Br J Nutr 2010, 103:749-759.
32. Erber E., Beck L., Hopping B.N., et al. Food patterns and socioeconomic indicators of food consumption amongst Inuvialuit in the Canadian Arctic. JHum Nutr Diet 2010, 23(suppl 1):59-66.
33. Kuhnlein H.V., Receveur O., Soueida R., Egeland G.M. Arctic indigenous peoples experience the nutrition transition with changing dietary patterns and obesity. JNutr 2004, 34:1447-1453.
34. Proust F., Lucas M., Dewailly E. Fatty acid profiles among the Inuit of Nunavik: current status and temporal change. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2014, 90:159-167.
35. Sheikh N., Egeland G.M., Johnson-Down L., Kuhnlein H.V. Changing dietary patterns and body mass index over time in Canadian Inuit communities. Int J Circumpolar Health 2011, 70:511-519.
36. Murphy N.J., Schraer C.D., Thiele M.C., et al. Dietary change and obesity associated with glucose intolerance in Alaska Natives. JAm Diet Assoc 1995, 95:676-682.
37. Deutch B., Dyerberg J., Pedersen H.S., et al. Dietary composition and contaminants in north Greenland, in the 1970s and 2004. Sci Total Environ 2006, 370:372-381.
38. Cardoso I., Bovet P., Viswanathan B., Luke A., Marques-Vidal P. Nutrition transition in a middle-income country: 22-year trends in the Seychelles. Eur J Clin Nutr 2013, 67:135-140.
39. Uusitalo U., Sobal J., Moothoosamy L., et al. Dietary Westernisation: conceptualisation and measurement in Mauritius. Public Health Nutr 2005, 8:608-619.
40. Dewailly E., Blanchet C., Lemieux S., et al. n-3 Fatty acids and cardiovascular disease risk factors among the Inuit of Nunavik. Am J Clin Nutr 2001, 74:464-473.
41. Johnson-Down L.M., Egeland G.M. How is nutrition transition affecting dietary adequacy in Eeyouch (Cree) adults of Northern Quebec, Canada?. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2013, 38:300-305.
42. Khalil C.B., Johnson-Down L., Egeland G.M. Emerging obesity and dietary habits among James Bay Cree youth. Public Health Nutr 2010, 13:1829-1837.
43. Langlois K.A., Findlay L.C., Kohen D.E. Dietary habits of aboriginal children. Health Rep 2013, 24:3-7.
44. Downs S.M., Arnold A., Marshall D., et al. Associations among the food environment, diet quality and weight status in Cree children in Quebec. Public Health Nutr 2009, 12:1504-1511.
45. Rosenmöller D.L., Gasevic D., Seidell J., Lear S.A. Determinants of changes in dietary patterns among Chinese immigrants: a cross-sectional analysis. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2011, 8:42.
46. Varghese S., Moore-Orr R. Dietary acculturation and health-related issues of Indian immigrant families in Newfoundland. Can J Diet Pract Res 2002, 63:72-79.
47. Abou El Hassan D., Hekmat S. Dietary acculturation of Arab immigrants in the Greater Toronto Area. Can J Diet Pract Res 2012, 73:143-146.
48. Pomerleau J., Ostbye T., Bright-See E. Place of birth and dietary intake in Ontario. I. Energy, fat, cholesterol, carbohydrate, fiber, and alcohol. Prev Med 1998, 27:32-40.
49. Merchant A.T., Anand S.S., Kelemen L.E., et al. Carbohydrate intake and HDL in a multiethnic population. Am J Clin Nutr 2007, 85:225-230.
50. Merchant A.T., Anand S.S., Vuksan V., et al. Protein intake is inversely associated with abdominal obesity in a multi-ethnic population. JNutr 2005, 135:1196-1201.
51. Merchant A.T., Kelemen L.E., de Koning L., et al. Interrelation of saturated fat, trans fat, alcohol intake, and subclinical atherosclerosis. Am J Clin Nutr 2008, 87:168-174.
52. Vuksan V., Rogovik A., Jenkins A., et al. Cardiovascular risk factors, diet and lifestyle among European, South Asian and Chinese adolescents in Canada. Paediatr Child Health 2012, 17:e1-6.
53. Garriguet D. Obesity and the eating habits of the aboriginal population. Health Rep 2008, 19:21-35.
54. Katzmarzyk P.T. Obesity and physical activity among aboriginal Canadians. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2008, 16:184-190.
55. Liu R., So L., Mohan S., Khan N., King K., Quan H. Cardiovascular risk factors in ethnic populations within Canada: results from national cross-sectional surveys. Open Med 2010, 4:e143-e153.
56. Lesser I.A., Yew A.C., Mackey D.C., Lear S.A. Across-sectional analysis of the association between physical activity and visceral adipose tissue accumulation in a multiethnic cohort. JObes 2012, 2012:703941.
57. Tremblay M.S., Bryan S.N., Pérez C.E., Ardern C.I., Katzmarzyk P.T. Physical activity and immigrant status: evidence from the Canadian Community Health Survey. Can J Public Health 2006, 97:277-282.
58. Dogra S., Meisner B.A., Ardern C.I. Variation in mode of physical activity by ethnicity and time since immigration: a cross-sectional analysis. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2010, 7:75.
59. Kukaswadia A., Pickett W., Janssen I. Time since immigration and ethnicity as predictors of physical activity among Canadian youth: a cross-sectional study. PLoS One 2014, 9:e89509.
60. Lix L.M., Bruce S., Sarkar J., Young T.K. Risk factors and chronic conditions among aboriginal and non-aboriginal populations. Health Rep 2009, 20:21-29.
61. Ng C.D., Marshall D., Willows N.D. Obesity, adiposity, physical fitness and activity levels in Cree children. Int J Circumpolar Health 2006, 65:322-330.
62. Gates M., Hanning R.M., Martin I.D., Gates A., Tsuji L.J. Body Mass Index of First Nations youth in Ontario, Canada: influence of sleep and screen time. Rural Remote Health 2013, 13:2498.
63. Tremblay M.S., Leblanc A.G., Janssen I., et al. Canadian sedentary behaviour guidelines for children and youth. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2011, 36:59-64. 65-71.
64. Anand S.S., Davis A.D., Ahmed R., et al. Afamily-based intervention to promote healthy lifestyles in an aboriginal community in Canada. Can J Public Health 2007, 98:447-452. SHARE-AP ACTION Investigators.
65. Cummings D.E., Schwartz M.E. Genetics and pathophysiology of human obesity. Annu Rev Med 2003, 54:453-471.
66. Elks C.E., den Hoed M., Zhao J.H., et al. Variability in the heritability of body mass index: a systematic review and meta-regression. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2012, 3:29.
67. Stunkard A.J., Sørensen T.I., Hanis C., et al. An adoption study of human obesity. NEngl J Med 1986, 314:193-198.
68. Neel J.V. Diabetes mellitus: a "thrifty" genotype rendered detrimental by "progress"?. Am J Hum Genet 1962, 14:353-362.
69. Mattei J., Parnell L.D., Lai C.Q., et al. Disparities in allele frequencies and population differentiation for 101 disease-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms between Puerto Ricans and non-Hispanic whites. BMC Genet 2009, 10:45.
70. Ayub Q., Moutsianas L., Chen Y., et al. Revisiting the thrifty gene hypothesis via 65 loci associated with susceptibility to type 2 diabetes. Am J Hum Genet 2014, 94:176-185.
71. Speakman J.R. Evolutionary perspectives on the obesity epidemic: adaptive, maladaptive, and neutral viewpoints. Annu Rev Nutr 2013, 33:289-317.
72. Southam L., Soranzo N., Montgomery S.B., et al. Is the thrifty genotype hypothesis supported by evidence based on confirmed type 2 diabetes- and obesity-susceptibility variants?. Diabetologia 2009, 52:1846-1851.
73. Speakman J.R. Thrifty genes for obesity, an attractive but flawed idea, and an alternative perspective: the 'drifty gene' hypothesis. Int J Obes (Lond) 2008, 32:1611-1617.
74. Speakman J.R. Anonadaptive scenario explaining the genetic predisposition to obesity: the "predation release" hypothesis. Cell Metab 2007, 6:5-12.
75. Speakman J.R. Thrifty genes for obesity and the metabolic syndrome-time to call off the search?. Diab Vasc Dis Res 2006, 3:7-11.
76. Prentice A.M., Hennig B.J., Fulford A.J. Evolutionary origins of the obesity epidemic: natural selection of thrifty genes or genetic drift following predation release?. Int J Obes (Lond) 2008, 32:1607-1610.
77. Falchi M., El-Sayed Moustafa J.S., Takousis P., et al. Low copy number of the salivary amylase gene predisposes to obesity. Nat Genet 2014, 46:492-497.
78. Wheeler E., Huang N., Bochukova E.G., et al. Genome-wide SNP and CNV analysis identifies common and low-frequency variants associated with severe early-onset obesity. Nat Genet 2013, 45:513-517.
79. D'Angelo C.S., Kohl I., Varela M.C., et al. Obesity with associated developmental delay and/or learning disability in patients exhibiting additional features: report of novel pathogenic copy number variants. Am J Med Genet A 2013, 161A:479-486.
80. Sun C., Cao M., Shi J., et al. Copy number variations of obesity relevant loci associated with body mass index in young Chinese. Gene 2013, 516:198-203.
81. Yang T.L., Guo Y., Shen H., et al. Copy number variation on chromosome 10q26.3 for obesity identified by a genome-wide study. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2013, 98:E191-E195.
82. El-Sayed Moustafa J.S., Eleftherohorinou H., de Smith A.J., et al. Novel association approach for variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) identifies DOCK5 as a susceptibility gene for severe obesity. Hum Mol Genet 2012, 21:3727-3738.
83. Yang T.L., Guo Y., Li S.M., et al. Ethnic differentiation of copy number variation on chromosome 16p12.3 for association with obesity phenotypes in European and Chinese populations. Int J Obes (Lond) 2013, 37:188-190.
84. Zhao W., Wineinger N.E., Tiwari H.K., et al. Copy number variations associated with obesity-related traits in African Americans: a joint analysis between GENOA and HyperGEN. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2012, 20:2431-2437.
85. Glessner J.T., Bradfield J.P., Wang K., et al. Agenome-wide study reveals copy number variants exclusive to childhood obesity cases. Am J Hum Genet 2010, 87:661-666.
86. Huang L., Teng D., Wang H., Sheng G., Liu T. Association of copy number variation in the AHI1 gene with risk of obesity in the Chinese population. Eur J Endocrinol 2012, 166:727-734.
87. Jarick I., Vogel C.I., Scherag S., et al. Novel common copy number variation for early onset extreme obesity on chromosome 11q11 identified by a genome-wide analysis. Hum Mol Genet 2011, 20:840-852.
88. Chen Y., Liu Y.J., Pei Y.F., et al. Copy number variations at the Prader-Willi syndrome region on chromosome 15 and associations with obesity in whites. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2011, 19:1229-1234.
89. Wang K., Li W.D., Glessner J.T., et al. Large copy-number variations are enriched in cases with moderate to extreme obesity. Diabetes 2010, 59:2690-2694.
90. Sha B.Y., Yang T.L., Zhao L.J., et al. Genome-wide association study suggested copy number variation may be associated with body mass index in the Chinese population. JHum Genet 2009, 54:199-202.
91. Bell C.G., Walley A.J., Froguel P. The genetics of human obesity. Nat Rev Genet 2005, 6:221-234.
92. Freedman D.S., Khan L.K., Serdula M.K., Ogden C.L., Dietz W.H. Racial and ethnic differences in secular trends for childhood BMI, weight, and height. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2006, 14:301-308.
93. Taveras E.M., Gillman M.W., Kleinman K., Rich-Edwards J.W., Rifas-Shiman S.L. Racial/ethnic differences in early-life risk factors for childhood obesity. Pediatrics 2010, 125:686-695.
94. Chen R., Corona E., Sikora M., et al. Type 2 diabetes risk alleles demonstrate extreme directional differentiation among human populations, compared to other diseases. PLoS Genet 2012, 8:e1002621.
95. Kilpeläinen T.O., Qi L., Brage S., Sharp S.J., et al. Physical activity attenuates the influence of FTO variants on obesity risk: a meta-analysis of 218,166 adults and 19,268 children. PLoS Med 2011, 8:e1001116.
96. Monda K.L., Chen G.K., Taylor K.C., et al. Ameta-analysis identifies new loci associated with body mass index in individuals of African ancestry. Nat Genet 2013, 45:690-696.
97. Liu C.T., Monda K.L., Taylor K.C., et al. Genome-wide association of body fat distribution in African ancestry populations suggests new loci. PLoS Genet 2013, 9:e1003681.
98. Ng M.C., Hester J.M., Wing M.R., et al. Genome-wide association of BMI in African Americans. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2012, 20:622-627.
99. Wen W., Cho Y.S., Zheng W., et al. Meta-analysis identifies common variants associated with body mass index in east Asians. Nat Genet 2012, 44:307-311.
100. Okada Y., Kubo M., Ohmiya H., et al. Common variants at CDKAL1 and KLF9 are associated with body mass index in east Asian populations. Nat Genet 2012, 44:302-306.
101. Dorajoo R., Blakemore A.I., Sim X., et al. Replication of 13 obesity loci among Singaporean Chinese, Malay and Asian-Indian populations. Int J Obes (Lond) 2012, 36:159-163.
102. Croteau-Chonka D.C., Marvelle A.F., Lange E.M., et al. Genome-wide association study of anthropometric traits and evidence of interactions with age and study year in Filipino women. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2011, 19:1019-1027.
103. Norris J.M., Langefeld C.D., Talbert M.E., et al. Genome-wide association study and follow-up analysis of adiposity traits in Hispanic Americans: the IRAS Family Study. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2009, 17:1932-1941.
104. Comuzzie A.G., Cole S.A., Laston S.L., et al. Novel genetic loci identified for the pathophysiology of childhood obesity in the Hispanic population. PLoS One 2012, 7:e51954.
105. Paternoster L., Evans D.M., Nohr E.A., et al. Genome-wide population-based association study of extremely overweight young adults-the GOYA study. PLoS One 2011, 6:e24303.
106. Chambers J.C., Elliott P., Zabaneh D., et al. Common genetic variation near MC4R is associated with waist circumference and insulin resistance. Nat Genet 2008, 40:716-718.
107. Vasan S.K., Fall T., Neville M.J., et al. Associations of variants in FTO and near MC4R with obesity traits in South Asian Indians. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2012, 20:2268-2277.
108. Dwivedi O.P., Tabassum R., Chauhan G., et al. Strong influence of variants near MC4R on adiposity in children and adults: a cross-sectional study in Indian population. JHum Genet 2013, 58:27-32.
109. Dwivedi O.P., Tabassum R., Chauhan G., et al. Common variants of FTO are associated with childhood obesity in a cross-sectional study of 3,126 urban Indian children. PLoS One 2012, 7:e47772.
110. Bodhini D., Radha V., Deepa R., et al. The G1057D polymorphism of IRS-2 gene and its relationship with obesity in conferring susceptibility to type 2 diabetes in Asian Indians. Int J Obes (Lond) 2007, 31:97-102.
111. Cassell P.G., Saker P.J., Huxtable S.J., et al. Evidence that single nucleotide polymorphism in the uncoupling protein 3 (UCP3) gene influences fat distribution in women of European and Asian origin. Diabetologia 2000, 43:1558-1564.
112. Saha N., Tay J.S., Heng C.K., Humphries S.E. DNA polymorphisms of the apolipoprotein B gene are associated with obesity and serum lipids in healthy Indians in Singapore. Clin Genet 2008, 44:113-120.
113. Malhotra A., Kobes S., Knowler W.C., et al. Agenome-wide association study of BMI in American Indians. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2011, 19:2102-2106.
114. Krakoff J., Ma L., Kobes S., et al. Lower metabolic rate in individuals heterozygous for either a frameshift or a functional missense MC4R variant. Diabetes 2008, 57:3267-3272.
115. Arnaiz-Villena A., Fernández-Honrado M., Rey D., et al. Amerindians show association to obesity with adiponectin gene SNP45 and SNP276: population genetics of a food intake control and "thrifty" gene. Mol Biol Rep 2013, 40:1819-1826.
116. Traurig M., Mack J., Hanson R.L., et al. Common variation in SIM1 is reproducibly associated with BMI in Pima Indians. Diabetes 2009, 58:1682-1689.
117. Traurig M.T., Perez J.M., Ma L., et al. Variants in the LEPR gene are nominally associated with higher BMI and lower 24-h energy expenditure in Pima Indians. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2012, 20:2426-2430.
118. Lear S.A., Deng W.Q., Paré G., et al. Associations of the FTO rs9939609 variant with discrete body fat depots and dietary intake in a multi-ethnic cohort. Genet Res (Camb) 2011, 3:419-426.
119. Seal N., Weaver M., Best L.G. Correlates of the FTO gene variant (rs9939609) and growth of American Indian infants. Genet Test Mol Biomarkers 2011, 15:633-638.
120. Lahiry P., Cao H., Ban M.R., et al. APOC1 T45S polymorphism is associated with reduced obesity indices and lower plasma concentrations of leptin and apolipoprotein C-I in aboriginal Canadians. JLipid Res 2010, 51:843-848.
121. Sandholt C.H., Hansen T., Pedersen O. Beyond the fourth wave of genome-wide obesity association studies. Nutr Diabetes 2012, 2:e37.
122. Llewellyn C.H., Trzaskowski M., Plomin R., Wardle J. Finding the missing heritability in pediatric obesity: the contribution of genome-wide complex trait analysis. Int J Obes (Lond) 2013, 37:1506-1509.
123. Shah N.R., Braverman E.R. Measuring adiposity in patients: the utility of body mass index (BMI), percent body fat, and leptin. PLoS One 2012, 7:e33308.
124. Lin X., Song K., Lim N., et al. Risk prediction of prevalent diabetes in a Swiss population using a weighted genetic score-the CoLaus Study. Diabetologia 2009, 52:600-608.
125. Cundiff D.K. BMI: a poor surrogate for diet and exercise in assessing risk of death. Int J Obes (Lond) 2006, 30:1173-1175.
126. Milan A, Maheux H, Chui T. A portrait of couples in mixed unions. Statistics Canada, 2010. Available at: . Accessed September 20, 2014. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-008-x/2010001/article/11143-eng.pdf.
127. Price A.L., Patterson N., Yu F., et al. Agenomewide admixture map for Latino populations. Am J Hum Genet 2007, 80:1024-1036.
128. Roof K., Oleru N. Public health: Seattle and King County's push for the built environment. JEnviron Health 2008, 71:24-27.
129. Booth K.M., Pinkston M.M., Poston W.S. Obesity and the built environment. JAm Diet Assoc 2005, 105(5 suppl 1):S110-S117.
130. Duncan D.T., Castro M.C., Gortmaker S.L., et al. Racial differences in the built environment-body mass index relationship? A geospatial analysis of adolescents in urban neighborhoods. Int J Health Geogr 2012, 11:11.
131. Riva M., Gauvin L., Richard L. Use of local area facilities for involvement in physical activity in Canada: insights for developing environmental and policy interventions. Health Promot Int 2007, 22:227-235.
132. Pouliou T., Elliott S.F. Individual and socio-environmental determinants of overweight and obesity in Urban Canada. Health Place 2010, 16:389-398.
133. Prince S.A., Kristjansson E.A., Russell K., et al. Relationships between neighborhoods, physical activity, and obesity: a multilevel analysis of a large Canadian city. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2012, 20:2093-2100.
134. Mackenbach J.D., Rutter H., Compernolle S., et al. Obesogenic environments: a systematic review of the association between the physical environment and adult weight status, the SPOTLIGHT project. BMC Public Health 2014, 14:233.
135. Booth G.L., Creatore M.I., Moineddin R., et al. Unwalkable neighborhoods, poverty, and the risk of diabetes among recent immigrants to Canada compared with long-term residents. Diabetes Care 2013, 36:302-308.
136. Joseph P., Davis A.D., Miller R., et al. Contextual determinants of health behaviours in an aboriginal community in Canada: pilot project. BMC Public Health 2012, 12:952.
137. Khan S.N., Grace S.L., Oh P., et al. Acomparison of physical activity environments between South Asians and white Caucasians with coronary heart disease. Ethn Dis 2010, 20:390-395.
138. Young T.K., Katzmarzyk P.T. Physical activity of Aboriginal people in Canada. Can J Public Health 2007, 98(suppl 2):S148-S160.
139. Morland K., Diez Roux A.V., Wing S. Supermarkets, other food stores, and obesity: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Am J Prev Med 2006, 30:333-339.
140. Cubbin C., Hadden W.C., Winkleby M.A. Neighborhood context and cardiovascular disease risk factors: the contribution of material deprivation. Ethn Dis 2001, 11:687-700.
141. Beaulac J., Kristjansson E., Cummins S. Asystematic review of food deserts, 1966-2007. Prev Chronic Dis 2009, 6:A105.
142. Black J.L., Carpiano R.M., Fleming S., Lauster N. Exploring the distribution of food stores in British Columbia: associations with neighbourhood socio-demographic factors and urban form. Health Place 2011, 17:961-970.
143. Smoyer-Tomi K.E., Spence J.C., Amrhein C. Food deserts in the prairies? Supermarket accessibility and neighborhood need in Edmonton, Canada. Professional Geographer 2006, 58:307-326.
144. Jones J., Terashima M., Rainham D. Fast food and deprivation in Nova Scotia. Can J Public Health 2009, 100:32-35.
145. Larsen K., Gilliland J. Mapping the evolution of 'food deserts' in a Canadian city: supermarket accessibility in London, Ontario, 1961-2005. Int J Health Geogr 2008, 7:16.
146. Gould A.C., Apparicio P., Cloutier M.S. Classifying neighbourhoods by level of access to stores selling fresh fruit and vegetables and groceries: identifying problematic areas in the city of Gatineau, Quebec. Can J Public Health 2012, 103:e433-e437.
147. Cheng T.O. Fat kids grow up to be fat adults: a lesson to be learned from China. Int J Cardiol 2007, 117:133-135.
148. Wang J., et al. Study of eight GWAS-identified common variants for association with obesity-related indices in Chinese children at puberty. Int J Obes (Lond) 2012, 36(4):542-547.
149. Takeuchi F., Yamamoto K., Katsuya T., et al. Association of genetic variants for susceptibility to obesity with type 2 diabetes in Japanese individuals. Diabetologia 2011, 54:1350-1359.
150. Zhu H.J., Dong C.X., Pan H., et al. rs4215 SNP in zinc-alpha2-glycoprotein gene is associated with obesity in Chinese north Han population. Gene 2012, 500:211-215.
151. Oktavianthi S., Trimarsanto H., Febinia C.A., et al. Uncoupling protein 2 gene polymorphisms are associated with obesity. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2012, 11:41.
152. Ruan X., Ma L., Wang S., et al. TAQIB and I405V polymorphisms of CETP are moderately associated with obesity risk in the Chinese adult population. Acta Diabetol 2010, 47:217-224.
153. Pei Y.F., Zhang L., Liu Y., et al. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association data identifies novel susceptibility loci for obesity. Hum Mol Genet 2014, 23:820-830.
154. Raj S.M., Halebeedu P., Kadandale J.S., et al. Variation at diabetes- and obesity-associated Loci may mirror neutral patterns of human population diversity and diabetes prevalence in India. Ann Hum Genet 2013, 77:392-408.
155. Lai C.Q., Tucker K.L., Choudhry S., et al. Population admixture associated with disease prevalence in the Boston Puerto Rican health study. Hum Genet 2009, 125:199-209.