Collective Victimization

The Oxford Handbook of Intergroup Conflict

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages

  Vollhardt, Johanna Ray ^a  

^a CLARK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Collective victimization; Collective violence; Cycles of violence; Prosocial intergroup outcomes; Reconciliation; Revenge; Solidarity; Transgenerational transmission; Victim beliefs; Victimhood

Indexed keywords

EID: 84924710744     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199747672.013.0009     Document Type: Chapter

References (158)

1. Ai, A. L., Tice, T. N., Whitsett, D. D., Ishisaka, T., & Chim, M., (2007). Posttraumatic symptoms and growth of Kosovar war refugees: The influence of hope and cognitive coping. Journal of Positive Psychology, 2, 55-65.
2. Ajdukovic, D., & Biruski, D. C., (2008). Caught between the ethnic sides: Children growing up in a divided post-war community. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32, 337-347.
3. Alexander, J. C., Eyerman, R., Giesen, B., Smelser, N. J., & Sztompka, P., (2004). Cultural trauma and collective identity. Berkeley: University of California Press.
4. Bar-Tal, D., (1998). The rocky road toward peace: Beliefs on conflict in Israeli textbooks. Journal of Peace Research, 35, 723-742.
5. Bar-Tal, D., (2000). Shared beliefs in a society: Social psychological analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
6. Bar-Tal, D., (2006). Bridging between micro and macro perspectives in social psychology. In P. A. M. Van Lange (Ed.), Bridging social psychology: Benefits of transdisciplinary approaches (pp. 341-346). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
7. Bar-Tal, D., & Antebi, D., (1992a). Beliefs about negative intentions of the world: A study of the Israeli siege mentality. Political Psychology, 13, 633-645.
8. Bar-Tal, D., & Antebi, D., (1992b). Siege mentality in Israel. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16, 251-275.
9. Bar-Tal, D., Chernyak-Hai, L., Schori, N., & Gundar, A., (2009). A sense of self-perceived collective victimhood in intractable conflicts. International Review of the Red Cross, 91, 229-258.
10. Bar-Tal, D., & Salomon, G., (2006). Israeli-Jewish narratives of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict: Evolution, contents, functions, and consequences. In R. Rotberg (Ed.), Israeli and Palestinian narratives of conflict: History's double helix (pp. 19-46). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
11. Bilewicz, M., (2007). History as an obstacle: Impact of temporal-based social categorizations on Polish-Jewish intergroup contact. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 10, 551-563.
12. Blumer, N. (in press). From victim hierarchies to memorial networks: Commemorating Sinti and Roma and Jews in Germany's national narrative. In A. Weiss-Wendt (Ed.), The Nazi genocide of the Gypsies: Reevaluation and commemoration. New York: Berghahn Books.
13. Bonanno, G. A., Galea, S., Bucciarelli, A., & Vlahov, D., (2006). Psychological resilience after disaster: New York City in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attack. Psychological Science, 17, 181-186.
14. Bonanno, G. A., & Jost, J. T., (2006). Conservative shift among high-exposure survivors of the September 11th terrorist attacks. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 28, 311-323.
15. Bukh, A., (2007). Japan's history textbooks debate: National identity in narratives of victimhood and victimization. Asian Survey, 47, 683-704.
16. Canetti-Nisim, D., Halperin, E., Sharvit, K., & Hobfoll, S. E., (2009). A new stress-based model of political extremism: Personal exposure to terrorism, psychological distress, and exclusionist political attitudes. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 53, 363-389.
17. Cehajic, S., & Brown, R., (2010). Silencing the past: Effects of intergroup contact on acknowledgment of ingroup responsibility. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1, 190-196.
18. Chaitin, J., & Steinberg, S., (2008). "You should know better": Expressions of empathy and disregard among victims of massive social trauma. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 17, 197-226.
19. Coser, L., (1956). The functions of social conflict. New York: Free Press.
20. Courtois, C. A., (2008). Complex trauma, complex reactions: Assessment and treatment. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 1, 86-100.
21. Crisp, R. J., Stone, C. H., & Hall, N. R., (2006). Recategorization and subgroup identification: predicting and preventing threats from common ingroups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 230-243.
22. Cross, W. E., Jr. (1998). Black psychological functioning and the legacy of slavery: Myths and realities. In Y. Danieli (Ed.), International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma (pp. 387-400). New York: Plenum Press.
23. Crownshaw, R., (2007). Photography and memory in Holocaust museums. Mortality, 12, 176-192.
24. Dambrun, M., Taylor, D. M., McDonald, D. A., Crush, J., & Meot, A., (2006). The relative deprivation-gratification continuum and the attitudes of South Africans toward immigrants: A test of the V-curve hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 1032-1044.
25. Danieli, Y., (Ed.). (1998). International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma. New York: Plenum Press.
26. Danielidou, L., & Horvath, P. (2006). Greek Cypriot attitudes toward Turkish Cypriots and Turkish immigrants. Journal of Social Psychology, 146, 405-421.
27. David, R., & Choi, S. Y. P., (2009). Getting even or getting equal? Retributive desires and transitional justice. Political Psychology, 30, 161-192.
28. Deaux, K., (2006). A nation of immigrants: Living our legacy. Journal of Social Issues, 62, 633-651.
29. DeGloma, T., (2009). Expanding trauma through space and time: Mapping the rhetorical strategies of trauma carrier groups. Social Psychology Quarterly, 72, 105-122.
30. Dorahy, M. J., Corry, M., Shannon, M., MacSherry, A., Hamilton, G., McRobert, G., et al. (2009). Complex PTSD, interpersonal trauma and relational consequences: Findings from a treatment-receiving Northern Irish sample. Journal of Affective Disorders, 112, 71-80.
31. Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., Shnabel, N., Saguy, T., & Johnson, J., (2010). Recategorization and prosocial behavior: Common in-group identity and a dual identity. In S. Stürmer & M. Snyder (Eds.), The psychology of prosocial behavior: Group processes, intergroup relations, and helping (pp. 191-207). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
32. Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., Validzic, A., & Matoka, K., (1997). Extending the benefits of recategorization: Evaluations, self-disclosure, and helping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 401-420.
33. Dumont, M., Yzerbyt, V., Wigboldus, D. L., & Gordijn, E. H., (2003). Social categorization and fear reactions to the September 11th terrorist attacks. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1509-1520.
34. Duncan, L. E., & Stewart, A. J., (2007). Personal political salience: The role of personality in collective identity and action. Political Psychology, 28, 143-164.
35. Eidelson, R. J., & Eidelson, J. I., (2003). Dangerous ideas: Five beliefs that propel groups toward conflict. American Psychologist, 58, 182-192.
36. Elcheroth, G., (2006). Individual-level and community-level effects of war trauma on social representations related to humanitarian law. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 907-930.
37. Eyerman, R., (2004). The past in the present: Culture and the transmission of memory. Acta Sociologica, 47, 159-169.
38. Feldman, J., (2007). Between Yad Vashem and Mt. Herzl: Changing inscriptions of sacrifice on Jerusalem's "Mountain of Memory." Anthropological Quarterly, 80, 1147-1174.
39. Field, N. P., & Chhim, S., (2008). Desire for revenge and attitudes toward the Khmer Rouge tribunal among Cambodians. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 13, 352-372.
40. Fonagy, P., (1999). The transgenerational transmission of Holocaust trauma: Lessons learned from the analysis of an adolescent with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Attachment and Human Development, 1, 92-114.
41. Forstmeier, S., Kuwert, P., Spitzer, C., Freyberger, H. J., & Maercker, A., (2009). Posttraumatic growth, social acknowledgment as survivors, and sense of coherence in former German child soldiers of World War II. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 17, 1030-1039.
42. Galtung, J., (1969). Violence, peace, and peace research. Journal of Peace Research, 6, 167-191.
43. Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. Journal of Peace Research, 27, 291-305.
44. Ginges, J., & Atran, S., (2008). Humiliation and the inertia effect: Implications for understanding violence and compromise in intractable intergroup conflicts. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 8, 281-294.
45. Goodman, Y. C., & Mizrachi, N., (2008). "The Holocaust does not belong to European Jews alone": The differential use of memory techniques in Israeli high schools. American Ethnologist, 35, 95-114.
46. Gruenberg, K., & Rosental, N., (2007). Contaminated generativity: Holocaust survivors and their children in Germany. American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 67, 82-96.
47. Halperin, E., Bar-Tal, D., Nets-Zehngut, R., & Drori, E., (2008). Emotions in conflict: Correlates of fear and hope in the Israeli-Jewish society. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 14, 233-258.
48. Hammack, P. L., (2009). Exploring the reproduction of conflict through narrative: Israeli youth motivated to participate in a coexistence program. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 15, 49-74.
49. Hareven, A., (1983). Victimization: Some comments by an Israeli. Political Psychology, 4, 145-155.
50. Herf, J., (2006). The Jewish enemy: Nazi propaganda during World War II and the Holocaust. Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard University Press.
51. Herman, J. L., (1992). Complex PTSD: A syndrome in survivors of prolonged and repeated trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 377-391.
52. Hewstone, M., Cairns, E., Voci, A., Hamberger, J., & Niens, U., (2006). Intergroup contact, forgiveness, and experience of 'The Troubles' in Northern Ireland. Journal of Social Issues, 62, 99-120.
53. Hicks, D., & Weisberg, W., (2004). Extending the interactive problem-solving method: addressing multiple levels of conflict, unacknowledged trauma, and responsibility. In A. H. Eagly, R. M. Baron, & V. L. Hamilton (Eds.), The social psychology of group identity and social conflict: Theory, application, and practice (pp. 151-172). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
54. Hobfoll, S. E., Canetti-Nisim, D., & Johnson, R. J., (2006). Exposure to terrorism, stress-related mental health symptoms, and defensive coping among Jews and Arabs in Israel. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 207-218.
55. Hornsey, M. J., & Hogg, M. A., (2000). Intergroup similarity and subgroup relations: Some implications for assimilation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 948-958.
56. Hovannisian, R., (2007). The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and ethical legacies. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
57. Huddy, L., Feldman, S., Capelos, T., & Provost, C., (2002). The consequences of terrorism: Disentangling the effects of personal and national threat. Political Psychology, 23, 485-509.
58. Janoff-Bulman, R., (1992). Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. New York: Free Press.
59. Jensen, E. N., (2002). The pink triangle and political consciousness: Gays, lesbians, and the memory of Nazi persecution. Journal of the History of Sexuality, 11, 319-349.
60. Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F. H., (1995). In search of altruistic community: Patterns of social support mobilization following Hurricane Hugo. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 447-477.
61. Kellow, C., & Steeves, H., (1998). The role of radio in the Rwandan genocide. Journal of Communication, 48, 107-128.
62. Khalili, L., (2008). Commemorating battles and massacres in the Palestinian refugee camps of Lebanon. American Behavioral Scientist, 51, 1562-1574.
63. Levene, M., (1999). Connecting threads: Rwanda, the Holocaust, and the pattern of contemporary genocide. In R. W. Smith (Ed.), Genocide: Essays toward understanding, early warning and prevention (pp. 27-64). Williamsburg, VA: Association of Genocide Scholars.
64. Lev-Wiesel, R., (2007). Intergenerational transmission of trauma across three generations: A preliminary study. Qualitative Social Work: Research and Practice, 6, 75-94.
65. Levine, M., Prosser, A., Evans, D., & Reicher, S., (2005). Identity and emergency intervention: How social group membership and inclusiveness of group boundaries shape helping behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 443-453.
66. Levine, M., & Thompson, K., (2004). Identity, place, and bystander intervention: Social categories and helping after natural disasters. Journal of Social Psychology, 144, 229-245.
67. Lickel, B., Miller, N., Stenstrom, D. M., Denson, T. F., & Schmader, T., (2006). Vicarious retribution: The role of collective blame in intergroup aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 372-390.
68. Lifton, R., (2003). Super power syndrome: America's apocalyptic confrontation with the world. New York: Nation Books.
69. Lindner, E., (2002). Healing the cycles of humiliation: How to attend to the emotional aspects of "unsolvable" conflicts and the use of "humiliation entrepreneurship." Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 8, 125-138.
70. Lindner, E., (2006). Making enemies: Humiliation and international conflict. Westport, CT: Praeger Security International.
71. Litvak-Hirsch, T., & Bar-On, D., (2007). Encounters in the looking-glass of time: Longitudinal contribution of a life story workshop course to the dialogue between Jewish and Arab young adults in Israel. Peace and Conflict Studies, 14, 23-46.
72. Litvak-Hirsch, T., Bar-On, D., & Chaitin, J., (2003). Whose house is this? Dilemmas of identity construction in the Israeli-Palestinian context. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 9, 127-148.
73. Litvak-Hirsch, T., Chaitin, J., & Zaher, E., (2010). Perceptions of the Holocaust of Palestinian young adults, citizens of Israel. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 16, 231-252.
74. Livingstone, A., & Haslam, S. A., (2008). The importance of social identity content in a setting of chronic social conflict: Understanding intergroup relations in Northern Ireland. British Journal of Social Psychology, 47, 1-21.
75. Lomsky-Feder, E., (2004). The memorial ceremony in Israeli schools: Between the state and civil society. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 25, 291-305.
76. Lustig, I., (2002). The effects of studying distal conflicts on the perception of a proximal one. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Haifa (in Hebrew).
77. Macdonald, D. B., (2003). Balkan Holocausts? Serbian and Croatian victim centered propaganda and the war in Yugoslavia. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.
78. Maercker, A., & Müller, J., (2004). Social acknowledgment as a victim or survivor: A scale to measure a recovery factor of PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 345-351.
79. Maercker, A., Povilonyte, M., Lianova, R., & Pöhlmann, K., (2009). Is acknowledgment of trauma a protective factor? The sample case of refugees from Chechnya. European Psychologist, 14, 249-254.
80. Magee, J. C., Milliken, F. J., & Lurie, A. R., (2010). Power differences in the construal of a crisis: The immediate aftermath of September 11, 2001. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 354-370.
81. Maiello, S., (2001). On the transgenerational transmission of trauma and violence. Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy in South Africa, 9, 13-31.
82. Mamdani, M., (2001). When victims become killers. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
83. Manzi, J., & Gonzalez, R., (2007). Forgiveness and reparation in Chile: The role of cognitive and emotional intergroup antecedents. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 13, 71-91.
84. Maoz, I., & Bar-On, D., (2002). From working through the Holocaust to current ethnic conflicts: Evaluating the TRT group workshop in Hamburg. Group, 26, 29-48.
85. Maoz, I., & Eidelson, R. J., (2007). Psychological bases of extreme policy preferences: How the personal beliefs of Israeli-Jews predict their support for population transfer in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. American Behavioral Scientist, 50, 1476-1497.
86. Martín-Baró, I., (1994). Writings for a liberation psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
87. Masuoka, N., (2006). Together they become one: Examining the predictors of panethnic group consciousness among Asian Americans and Latinos. Social Science Quarterly, 87, 993-1011.
88. Meredith, V. M., (2009). Victim identity and respect for human dignity: A terminological analysis. International Review of the Red Cross, 91, 259-277.
89. Myers, E., Hewstone, M., & Cairns, E., (2009). Impact of conflict on mental health in Northern Ireland: The mediating role of intergroup forgiveness and collective guilt. Political Psychology, 30, 269-290.
90. Noor, M., Brown, R., Gonzalez, R., Manzi, J., & Lewis, C. A., (2008). On positive psychological outcomes: What helps groups with a history of conflict to forgive and reconcile with each other? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 819-832.
91. Noor, M., Brown, R. J., & Prentice, G., (2008). Precursors and mediators of intergroup reconciliation in Northern Ireland: A new model. British Journal of Social Psychology, 47, 481-495.
92. Norris, F. H., Friedman, M. J., & Watson, P. J., (2002). 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part II. Summary and implications of the disaster mental health research. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 65, 240-260.
93. Paluck, E. L., (2009). Reducing intergroup prejudice and conflict using the media: A field experiment in Rwanda. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 574-587.
94. Paluck, E. L., (2010). Is it better not to talk? Group polarization, extended contact, and perspective-taking in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 1170-1185.
95. Pennekamp, S. F., Doosje, B., Zebel, S., & Fischer, A. H., (2007). The past and the pending: The antecedents and consequences of group-based anger in historically and currently disadvantaged groups. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 10, 41-55.
96. Pettigrew, T., (1996). How to think like a social scientist. New York: Harper Collins.
97. Pettigrew, T. F., (1997). Generalized intergroup contact effects on prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 173-185.
98. Pettigrew, T. F., (2003). Peoples under threat: Americans, Arabs, and Israelis. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 9, 69-90.
99. Pettigrew, T. F., (2006). The advantages of multilevel approaches. Journal of Social Issues, 62, 615-620.
100. Pham, P. N., Weinstein, H. M., & Longman, T., (2004). Trauma and PTSD symptoms in Rwanda: Implications for attitudes toward justice and reconciliation. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 292, 602-612.
101. Porat, D. A., (2004). From the scandal to the Holocaust in Israeli education. Journal of Contemporary History, 39, 619-636.
102. Ramanathapillai, R., (2006). The politicizing of trauma: A case study of Sri Lanka. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 12, 1-18.
103. Reicher, S., Cassidy, C., Wolpert, I., Hopkins, N., & Levine, M., (2006). Saving Bulgaria's Jews: An analysis of social identity and the mobilisation of social solidarity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 49-72.
104. Reicher, S., & Hopkins, N., (2001). Self and nation. London: Sage.
105. Robins, N. A. & Jones, A., (Eds.). (2009). Genocides by the oppressed: Subaltern genocide in theory and practice. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
106. Roe, M., & Cairns, E., (2003). Memories in conflict: Review and a look to the future. In E. Cairns & M. Roe (Eds.), The role of memory in ethnic conflict (pp. 171-180). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
107. Rouhana, N. N., (2004). Group identity and power asymmetry in reconciliation processes: The Israeli-Palestinian case. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 10, 33-52.
108. Rouhana, N. N., & Bar-Tal, D., (1998). Psychological dynamics of intractable ethnonational conflicts: The Israeli-Palestinian case. American Psychologist, 53, 761-770.
109. Roy, S., (2002). Living with the Holocaust: The journey of a child of Holocaust survivors. Journal of Palestine Studies, 32, 5-12.
110. Sagi-Schwartz, A., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., (2008). Does intergenerational transmission of trauma skip a generation? No meta-analytic evidence for tertiary traumatization with third generation of holocaust survivors. Attachment and Human Development, 10, 105-121.
111. Saguy, T., Dovidio, J. F., & Pratto, F., (2008). Beyond contact: Intergroup contact in the context of power relations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 432-445.
112. Salomon, G., (2004). Does peace education make a difference in the context of an intractable conflict? Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 10, 257-274.
113. Sani, F., Bowe, M., Herrera, M., Manna, C., Cossa, T., Miao, X., & Zhou, Y., (2007). Perceived collective continuity: Seeing groups as entities that move through time. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 1118-1134.
114. Schaal, S., & Elbert, T., (2006). Ten years after the genocide: Trauma confrontation and posttraumatic stress in Rwandan adolescents. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19, 95-105.
115. Schmader, T., & Lickel, B., (2006). The approach and avoidance function of guilt and shame emotions: Comparing reactions to self-caused and other-caused wrongdoing. Motivation and Emotion, 30, 43-56.
116. Schori, N., Klar, Y., & Roccas, S., (2009). "In every generation, they rise up against us to annihilate us": Perpetual Ingroup Victimhood Orientation (PIVO) and behavior in a current intergroup conflict. Paper, presented at the 32nd Annual Meeting of the International Society for Political Psychology, Dublin (Ireland).
117. Sellers, R. M., Rowley, S. A. J., Chavous, T. M., Shelton, J. N., & Smith, M. A., (1997). Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity: A preliminary investigation of reliability and construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 805-815.
118. Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, J. N., Rowley, S. A. J., & Chavous, T. M., (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 18-39.
119. Sharvit, K., Bar-Tal, D., Raviv, A., Raviv, A., & Gurevich, R., (2010). Ideological orientation and social context as moderators of the effect of terrorism: The case of Israeli-Jewish public opinion regarding peace. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 105-121.
120. Sheikh, S., & Janoff-Bulman, R., (2010). The "shoulds" and "should nots" of moral emotions: A self-regulatory perspective on shame and guilt. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 213-224.
121. Shnabel, N., Nadler, A., Ullrich, J., Dovidio, J. F., & Carmi, D., (2009). Promoting reconciliation through the satisfaction of the emotional needs of victimized and perpetrating group members: The needs-based model of reconciliation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 1021-1030.
122. Shoham, E., Shiloah, N., & Kalisman, R., (2003). Arab teachers and Holocaust education: Arab teachers study Holocaust education in Israel. Teaching and Teacher Education, 19, 609-625.
123. Sidanius, J., Van Laar, C., Levin, S., & Sinclair, S., (2004). Ethnic enclaves and the dynamics of social identity on the college campus: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 96-110.
124. Skitka, L. J., Bauman, C. W., Aramovich, N. P., & Morgan, G. S., (2006). Confrontational and preventative policy responses to terrorism: Anger wants a fight and fear wants "Them" to go away. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 28, 375-384.
125. Skitka, L. J., Bauman, C. W., & Mullen, E., (2004). Political tolerance and coming to psychological closure following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks: An integrative approach. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 743-756.
126. Smelser, N., (2004). September 11, 2001, as cultural trauma. In J. A. Alexander, R. Eyerman, B. Giesen., N. J. Smelser, & P. Sztompka (Eds.), Cultural trauma and collective identity (pp. 264-282). Berkeley: University of California Press.
127. Sorscher, N., & Cohen, L. J., (1997). Trauma in children of Holocaust survivors: Transgenerational effects. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 67, 493-500.
128. Staub, E., (1998). Breaking the cycle of genocidal violence: Healing and reconciliation. In J. H. Harvey (Ed.), Perspectives on loss: A sourcebook (pp. 231-238). Philadelphia, PA: Brunner/Mazel.
129. Staub, E., (2006). Reconciliation after genocide, mass killing, or intractable conflict: Understanding the roots of violence, psychological recovery, and steps toward a general theory. Political Psychology, 27, 867-894.
130. Staub, E., (2008). Promoting reconciliation after genocide and mass killing in Rwanda-And other postconflict settings: Understanding the roots of violence, healing, shared history, and general principles. In A. Nadler, T. Malloy, & J. D. Fisher (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup reconciliation (pp. 395-422). New York: Oxford University Press.
131. Staub, E., Pearlman, L. A., & Bilali, R., (2010). Understanding the roots and impact of violence and psychological recovery as avenues to reconciliation after mass violence and intractable conflict: Applications to national leaders, journalists, community groups, public education through radio, and children. In G. Salomon & E. Cairns (Eds.), Handbook on peace education (pp. 269-285). New York: Psychology Press.
132. Staub, E., & Vollhardt, J., (2008). Altruism born of suffering: The roots of caring and helping after victimization and other trauma. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78, 267-280.
133. Stern, P. C., (1995). Why do people sacrifice for their nations? Political Psychology, 16, 217-235.
134. Straus, S., (2007). What is the relationship between hate radio and violence? Rethinking Rwanda's "Radio Machete." Politics and Society, 35, 609-637.
135. Stürmer, S., Snyder, M., Kropp, A., & Siem, B., (2006). Empathy-motivated helping: The moderating role of group membership. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 943-956.
136. Suedfeld, P., (1999). Toward a taxonomy of ethnopolitical violence: Is collective killing by any other name still the same? Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 5, 349-355.
137. Tam, T., Hewstone, M., Cairns, E., Tausch, N., Maio, G., & Kenworthy, J., (2007). The impact of intergroup emotions on forgiveness in Northern Ireland. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 10, 119-136.
138. Taormina, R. J., & Messick, D. M., (1983). Deservingness for foreign aid: Effects of need, similarity, and estimated effectiveness. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 13, 371-391.
139. Thomsen, L., Green, E., Ho, A. K., Levin, S., van Laar, C., Sinclair, S., & Sidanius, J., (2010). Wolves in sheep's clothing: SDO asymmetrically predicts perceived ethnic victimization among white and Latino students across three years. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 225-238.
140. Updegraff, J. A., Silver, R. C., & Holman, E. A., (2008). Searching for and finding meaning in collective trauma: Results from a national longitudinal study of the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 709-722.
141. van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Sagi-Schwartz, A., (2003). Are children of Holocaust survivors less well-adapted? A meta-analytic investigation of secondary traumatization. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 459-469.
142. Volkan, V. D., (2001). Transgenerational transmissions and chosen traumas: An aspect of large-group identity. Group Analysis, 34, 79-97.
143. Vollhardt, J. R., (2009a). The role of victim beliefs in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict: Risk or potential for peace? Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 15, 135-159.
144. Vollhardt, J. R., (2009b). Altruism born of suffering and prosocial behavior following adverse life events: A review and conceptualization. Social Justice Research, 22, 53-97.
145. Vollhardt, J. R., (2010). Victim consciousness and its effects on intergroup relations-A double-edged sword? (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
146. Vollhardt, J., Coutin, M., Staub, E., Weiss, G., & Deflander, J., (2007). Deconstructing hate speech in the DRC: A psychological media sensitization campaign. Journal of Hate Studies, 5, 15-36.
147. Vollhardt, J., Migacheva, K., & Tropp, L. R., (2009). Social cohesion and tolerance for group differences. In J. de Rivera, (Ed.), Handbook on building cultures of peace (pp. 139-152). New York: Springer.
148. Vollhardt, J. R., & Staub, E., (2011). Inclusive altruism born of suffering: The effects of past suffering on prosocial behavior toward outgroups. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 81, 307-315.
149. Waterston, A., (2005). Bringing the past into the present: Family narratives of Holocaust, exile, and diaspora: The story of my story: An anthropology of violence, dispossession, and diaspora. Anthropological Quarterly, 78, 43-61.
150. Wayment, H. A., (2004). It could have been me: Vicarious victims and disaster-focused distress. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 515-528.
151. Whitbeck, L. B., Adams, G. W., Hoyt, D. R., & Chen, X., (2004). Conceptualizing and measuring historical trauma among American Indian people. American Journal of Community Psychology, 33, 119-130.
152. WHO. (2002). World report on violence and health. Geneva: World Health Organization.
153. Williams, G., (2008). Dangerous victims: on some political dangers of vicarious claims to victimhood. Distinktion: Scandinavian Journal of Social Theory, 17, 77-95.
154. Winship, G., & Knowles, J., (1996). The transgenerational impact of cultural trauma: Linking phenomena in treatment of third generation survivors of the Holocaust. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 13, 259-266.
155. Wohl, M. J. A., & Branscombe, N. R., (2005). Forgiveness and collective guilt assignment to historical perpetrator groups depend on level of social category inclusiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 288-303.
156. Wohl, M. J. A., & Branscombe, N. R., (2008). Remembering historical victimization: Collective guilt for current ingroup transgressions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 988-1006.
157. Woolford, A., & Wolejszo, S., (2006). Collecting on moral debts: Reparations for the Holocaust and Porajmos. Law and Society Review, 40, 871-901.
158. Zitek, E. M., Jordan, A. H., Monin, B., & Leach, F. R., (2010). Victim entitlement to behave selfishly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 245-255.