Children Living in Rural Poverty: The Role of Chaos in Early Development

The Oxford Handbook of Poverty and Child Development

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages

  Vernon Feagans, Lynne ^a   Garrett Peters, Patricia ^a   De Marco, Allison ^a   Bratsch Hines, Mary ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA   (United States)

Author keywords

Chaos; Child development; Poverty; Rural

Indexed keywords

EID: 84924546555     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199769100.013.0025     Document Type: Chapter

References (129)

1. Ackerman, B. P., Kogoa, J., Youngstrom, E., Schoff, K., & Izard, C. (1999). Family instability and the problem behaviors of children from economically disadvantaged families. Developmental Psychology, 35, 258-268.
2. Adam, E. (2004). Beyond quality: Parental and residential stability and children's adjustment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(5), 210-213.
3. Ahluwalia, I. B., Dodds, J. M., & Baligh, M. (1998). Social support and coping behaviors of low-income families experiencing food insufficiency in North Carolina. Health Education and Behavior, 25(5), 599-612.
4. Aneshensel, C. S., & Sucoff, C. A. (1996). The neighborhood context of adolescent mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 37(4), 293-310.
5. Arterberry, M. E., Midgett, C., Putnick, D. L., & Bornstein, M. H. (2007). Early attention and literacy experiences predict adaptive communication. First Language, 27(2), 175-189.
6. Barnett, R. C. (2006). Relationship of the number and distribution of work hours to health and quality-of-life (QOL) outcomes. In P. L. Perrewe & D. C. Ganster (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well being (Vol. 6, pp. 99-138). Oxford: Elsevier.
7. Beach, B. A. (1997). Perspectives on rural child care. Charleston, WV: Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools.
8. Blair, C. (2006). How similar are fluid cognition and general intelligence? A developmental neuroscience perspective on fluid cognition as an aspect of human cognitive ability. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29, 109-125.
9. Blank, R. (2004). How poverty and policy are shaped by place. Perspectives on Poverty, Policy, and Place, 2(1), 3-5.
10. Bradley, R. H. (2010). From home to day care: Chaos in the family/child-care mesosystem. In G. W. Evans & T. D. Wachs (Eds.), Chaos and its influence on children's development (pp. 135-153). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
11. Brody, G. H., & Flor, D. (1997). Maternal psychological functioning, family processes, and child adjustment in rural, single-parent, African-American families. Developmental Psychology, 33, 1000-1011.
12. Bronfenbrenner, U., & Evans, G. W. (2000). Developmental science in the 21st century: Emerging questions, theoretical models, research designs, and empirical findings. Social Development, 9(1), 115-125.
13. Brooks, R., & Meltzoff, A. (2008). Infant gaze following and pointing predict accelerated vocabulary growth through two years of age: A longitudinal, growth curve modeling study. Journal of Child Language, 35, 207-220.
14. Brooks-Gunn, J., & Duncan, G. J. (1997). The effects of poverty on children. The Future of Children, 7(2), 55-71.
15. Brooks-Gunn, J., Duncan, G., & Aber, J. L. (Eds.). (1997). Neighborhood poverty: Vol. 1. Context and consequences for children; Vol. 2. Policy implications in studying neighborhoods. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
16. Brown, E. D., & Low, C. M. (2008). Chaotic living conditions and sleep problems associated with children's responses to academic challenge. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(6), 920-923.
17. Burke, J., O'Campo, P., & Peak, G. L. (2006). Neighborhood influences and intimate partner violence: Does geographic setting matter? Journal of Urban Health, 83(2), 182-194.
18. Burton, L. M., & Tucker, M. B. (2009). Romantic unions in an era of uncertainty: A post-Moynihan perspective on African American women and marriage. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 621, 132-148.
19. Butcher, L. M., & Plomin, R. (2008). The nature of nurture: A genomewide association scan for family chaos. Behavior Genetics, 38(4), 361-371.
20. Coldwell, J., Pike, A., & Dunn, J. (2006). Household chaos-links with parenting and child behaviour. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(11), 1116-1122.
21. Congressional Rural Caucus. (2001, October 1). Frequently asked questions, fast facts: Why rural matters. Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives.
22. Cooper, C. R., Garcia Coll, C. T. W., Bartko, T., Davis, H., & Chatman, C. (Eds.). (2005). Developmental pathways through middle childhood: Rethinking contexts and diversity as resources. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
23. Corapci, F. (2010). Child-care chaos and child development. In G. W. Evans & T. D. Wachs (Eds.), Chaos and its influence on children's development (pp. 67-82). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
24. Corapci, F., & Wachs, T. D. (2002). Does parental mood or efficacy mediate the influence of environmental chaos upon parenting behavior? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 48(2), 182-201.
25. Coulton, C. J., Korbin, J. E., & Su, M. (1999). Neighborhoods and child maltreatment: A multi-level study. Child Abuse and Neglect, 23(11), 1019-1040.
26. Crouter, A. C., & McHale, S. M. (2005). Work, family, and children's time: Implications for youth. In S. M. Bianchi, L. M. Casper, & R. B. King (Eds.), Work, family, health, and well-being (pp. 49-66). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
27. Deater-Deckard, K., Mullineaux, P. Y., Beekman, C., Petrill, S. A., Schatschneider, C., & Thompson, L. A. (2009). Conduct problems, IQ, and household chaos: A longitudinal multi-informant study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(10), 1301-1308.
28. Deavers, K. L., & Hoppe, R. A. (1992). Overview of the rural poor in the 1980s. In C. M. Duncan (Ed.), Rural poverty in America (pp. 3-20). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
29. De Marco, M., Thorburn, S., & Kue, J. (2009). "In a country as affluent as America, people should be eating": Qualitative findings from research to explore food insecurity among rural and urban Oregonians. Qualitative Health Research, 19, 1010-1024.
30. Dumas, J. E., Nissley, J., Nordstrom, A., Smith, E. P., Prinz, R. J., & Levine, D. W. (2005). Home chaos: Sociodemographic, parenting, interactional, and child correlates. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 93-104. doi: 10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_9
31. Dumas, J. E., Nissley, J., Nordstrom, A., Smith, E. P., Prinz, R. J. & Levine, D. W. (2005). Home chaos: Sociodemographic, parenting, interactional, and child correlates. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psycholgy, 34(1), 93-104.
32. Duncan, C. M. (1999). Worlds apart: Why poverty persists in rural America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
33. Duncan, G. J., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Klebanov, P. K. (1994). Economic deprivation and early childhood development. Child Development, 65, 296-318.
34. Durham, R. E., & Smith, P. J. (2006). Nonmetropolitan status and kindergarteners' early literacy skills: Is there a rural disadvantage? Rural Sociology, 71(4), 625-661.
35. Edin, K., & Kissane, R. J. (2010). Poverty and the American family: A decade in review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 460-479.
36. Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Murphy, B. C., Guthrie, I. K., Jones, S., et al. (1997). Contemporaneous and longitudinal prediction of children's social functioning from regulation and emotionality. Child Development, 68, 642-664.
37. Entwisle, D. R., Alexander, K. L., & Olson, L. (2011). The nature of schooling. In R. Arum, I. Beattie, & K. Ford (Eds.), The structure of schooling: Readings in the sociology of education (pp. 178-187). Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
38. Evans, G. W. (2006). Child development and the physical environment. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 423-451.
39. Evans, G. W. & English, K. (2002). The environment of poverty: Multiple stressor exposure, psychophysiological stress, and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73(94), 1238-1248. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00469
40. Evans, G. W., Gonnella, C., Marcynyszyn, L. A., Gentile, L., & Salpekar, N. (2005). The role of chaos in poverty and children's socioemotional adjustment. Psychological Science, 16(7), 560-565.
41. Evans, G. W., Bullinger, M., & Hygge, S. (1998). Chronic noise exposure and physiological response: A prospective study of children living under environmental stress. Psychological Science, 9(1), 75-77. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00014
42. Evans, G. W., Kliewer, W., & Martin, J. (1991). The role of the physical environment in the health and well being of children. In H. E. Schroeder (Ed.), New directions in health psychology assessment (pp. 127-157). New York: Hemisphere.
43. Evans, G. W., Lepore, S. J., Shejwal, B. R., & Palsane, M. N. (1998). Chronic residential crowding and children's well-being: An ecological perspective. Child Development, 69, 1514-1523.
44. Evans, G. W., Maxwell, L. E., & Hart, B. (1999). Parental language and verbal responsiveness to children in crowded homes. Developmental Psychology, 35(4), 1020-1023.
45. Evans, G. W., & Wachs, T. (2010). Chaos and its influence on children's development: An ecological perspective. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
46. Fiese, B. H. (2006). Family routines and rituals. Hartford, CT: Yale University.
47. Fiese, B. H., & Winter, M. A. (2010). The dynamics of family chaos and its relation to children's socioemotional well-being. In G. W. Evans & T. D. Wachs (Eds.), Chaos and its influence on children's development: An ecological perspective (pp. 49-66) Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
48. Fiese, B. H., Tomcho, T.J., Douglas, M., Josephs, K., Scott, P., & Baker, T. (2002). A review of 50 years of research on naturally occurring family routines and rituals: Cause for celebration? Journal of Family Psychology, 16(4), 381-390. doi: 10.1037/0893-3200.16.4.381
49. Fischer, C. (1982). To dwell among friends. Chicago: University of Chicago.
50. Flouri, E. (2009). Strong families, tidy houses, and children's values in adult life: Are "chaotic," "crowded," and "unstable" homes really so bad? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 33(6), 496-503.
51. Garasky, S., Morton, L., & Greder, K. (2006). The effects of the local food environment and social support on rural food insecurity. Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition, 1, 83-103.
52. Garrett-Peters, P., De Marco, A., & Vernon-Feagans, L. (2011, March). Household chaos, poverty, and parenting: Longitudinal predictors of children's behavioral adjustment. Poster presentation at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
53. Ghazvini, A. S., Mullis, A. K., Mullis, R. L., & Park, J. J. (1999). Child care issues impacting welfare reform in the rural South (No. 9). Mississippi State, MS: Southern Rural Development Center.
54. Gibbs, G. (2002, August). Evaluation of the impact of formative assessment on student learning behaviour: Learning communities and assessment cultures; Connecting research with practice (European Association for Research into Learning and Instruction). Newcastle, UK: Northumbria University.
55. Hanscombe, K. B., Haworth, C. M. A., Davis, O. S. P., Jaffee, S. R., & Plomin, R. (2010). The nature (and nurture) of children's perceptions of family chaos. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 549-553.
56. Hart, S. A., Petrill, S. A., Deater-Deckard, K., & Thompson, L. A. (2007). SES and CHAOS as environmental mediators of cognitive ability: A longitudinal genetic analysis. Intelligence, 33, 233-242.
57. Harvey, D. L. (1993). Potter addition: Poverty, family, and kinship in a heartland community. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
58. Health and Human Services (2011). 2010/2011 HHS Poverty Guidelines. Retrieved from http://liheap.ncat.org/profiles/povertytables/FY2010/popnj.htm
59. Heaney, C., & Israel, B. (2002). Social networks and social support. In K. Glanz, B. Rimer, & F. Lewis (Eds.), Health behavior and health education (pp. 185-205). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
60. Henly, J., Danziger, S., & Offer, S. (2005). The contribution of social support to the material well-being of low-income families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 122-140.
61. Hill, T. D., Ross, C. E., & Angel, R. J. (2005). Neighborhood disorder, psychological distress, and health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46, 170-186.
62. Hoff, E. (2008). Language experience and language milestones during early childhood. In K. McCartney & D. Phillips (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of early childhood development (pp. 233-251). Oxford: Blackwell.
63. Hofferth, S. L., & Iceland, J. (1998). Social capital in rural and urban communities. Rural Sociology, 63(4), 574-598.
64. House, J., Landis, K., & Umberson, D. (1988). Social relationships and health. Science, 241, 540-545.
65. Howland, R. H. (1995). The treatment of persons with dual diagnoses in a rural community. Psychiatric Quarterly, 66(1), 33-49.
66. Hygge, S., Evans, G. W., & Bullinger, M. (2002). A prospective study of some effects of aircraft noise on cognitive performance in school children. Psychological Science, 13(5), 469-474.
67. Johansen, A. S., Leibowitz, A., & Waite, L. J. (1996). The importance of child-care characteristics to choice of care. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 759-772.
68. Johnson, A. D., Martin, A., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Petrill, S. A. (2008). Order in the house! Associations among household chaos, the home literacy environment, maternal reading ability, and children's early reading. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 54(4), 445-472.
69. Katras, M. J., Zuiker, V. S., & Bauer, J. W. (2004). Private safety net: Childcare resources from the perspective of rural low-income families. Family Relations, 53, 201-209.
70. Keefer, P. B., Monroe, P. A., Atkinson, E. S., & Garrison, M. E. (1996). Child care as an impediment to rural women's labor force participation. Family Perspectives, 30, 257-274.
71. Keltner, B. (1990). Family characteristics of preschool and social competence among black children in a Head Start program. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 21(2), 95-108. doi: 10.1007/BF00706118
72. Kinsella, K. (2001). Urban and rural dimensions of global population aging: An overview. Journal of Rural Health, 17(4), 314-322.
73. Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36, 220-232.
74. Kohler, J., Anderson, E., Oravecz, L., & Braun, B. (2004). Relationship constellations and dynamics of low-income rural mothers. Affilia, 19(2), 160-173.
75. Lev-Wiesel, R. (2003). Indicators constituting the construct of perceived community cohesion. Community Development Journal, 38(4), 332-343.
76. Lichter, D. T., Roscigno, V. J., & Condron, D. J. (2003). Rural children and youth at risk. In D. L. Brown & L. E. Swanson (Eds.), Challenges for rural America in the twenty-first century (pp. 97-108). University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
77. Li-Grining, C. P. (2007). Effortful control among low-income preschoolers in three cities: Stability, change, and individual differences. Developmental Psychology, 43(1), 208-221. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.208
78. Lowe, E. D., Weisner, T. S., Geis, S., & Huston, A. C. (2005). Child-care instability and the effort to sustain a working daily routine: Evidence from the New Hope ethnographic study of low-income families. In C. R. Cooper, C. Garcia Coll, W. T. Bartko, H. M. Davis, & C. Chatman (Eds.), Developmental pathways through middle childhood: Rethinking contexts and diversity as resources. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
79. Marcynyszyn, L. A., Evans, G. W., & Eckenrode, J. (2008). Family instability during early and middle adolescence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29(5), 380-392.
80. Matheny, A., Wachs, T. D., Ludwig, J., & Phillips, K. (1995). Bringing order out of chaos: Psychometric characteristics of the Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 16, 429-444.
81. Maxwell, L. E. (2003). Home and school density effects on elementary school children: The role of spatial density. Environment and Behavior, 35, 566-578.
82. Maxwell, L. M., & Evans, G. W. (2000). The effects of noise on preschool children's prereading skills. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 20, 91-97.
83. Mickelson, K., & Kubzansky, L. (2003). Social distribution of social support: The mediating role of life events. American Journal of Community Psychology, 32(3-4), 265-281.
84. Morrissey, T. W. (2009). Multiple child-care arrangements and young children's behavioral outcomes. Child Development, 80(1), 59-76.
85. Murray, K. T., & Kochanska, G. (2002). Effortful control: Factor structure and relation to externalizing and internalizing behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 503-514.
86. Myers, J. E., & Gill, C. S. (2004). Poor, rural, and female: Understudied, undercounseled, more at-risk. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 26, 225-248.
87. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICDH) Early Child Care Research Network. (2005). Duration and developmental timing of poverty and children's cognitive and social development from birth through third grade. Child Development, 76(4), 795-810.
88. Niggebrugge, A., Haynes, R., Jones, A., Lovett, A., & Harvey, I. (2005). The index of multiple deprivation 2000 access domain: A useful indicator for public health? Social Science and Medicine, 60(12), 2743-2753.
89. O'Hare, W. P. (2009). The forgotten fifth: Child poverty in rural America. Manchester, NH: Carsey Institute.
90. Parisi, D., McLaughlin, D. K., Grice, S. M., Taquino, M., & Gill, D. A. (2003). TANF participation rates: Do community conditions matter? Rural Sociology, 68(4), 491-512.
91. Perroncel, C. B. (2000). Getting kids ready for school in rural America. Charleston, WV: Appalachia Regional Educational Laboratory. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED445849).
92. Petrill, S. A., Pike, A., Price, T., & Plomin, R. (2004). Chaos in the home and socioeconomic status are associated with cognitive development in early childhood: Environmental mediators identified in a genetic design. Intelligence, 32, 445-460.
93. Presser, H. B. (2003). Working in a 24/7 economy: Challenges for American families. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
94. Presser, H. B., & Cox, A. G. (1997). The work schedules of low-educated American women and welfare reform. Monthly Labor Review, 120(4), 25-34.
95. Provasnik, S., KewalRamani, A., Coleman, M. M., Gilbertson, L., Herring, W., & Xie, Q. (2007). Status of education in rural America (NCES 2007-040). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
96. Pungello, E. P., & Kurtz-Costes, B. (1999). Why and how working women choose child care: A review with a focus on infancy. Developmental Review, 19, 31-96.
97. Raviv, T., Kessenich, M., & Morrison, F. J. (2004). A mediational model of the association between socioeconomic status and three-year-old language abilities: The role of parenting factors. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19, 528-547.
98. Repetti, R. L., Taylor, S. E., & Seeman, T. E. (2002). Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychological Bulletin, 128(2), 330-366. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.330
99. Repetti, R., & Wang, S. (2009). Parent employment and chaos in the family. In G. W. Evans & T. D. Wachs (Eds.), Chaos and its influence on child development: An ecological perspective (pp. 191-208). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
100. Rivers, K. (2005). Rural southern children falling behind in well-being. Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau.
101. Roy, K. M., Tubbs, C. Y., & Burton, L. M. (2004). Don't have no time: Daily rhythms and the organization of time for low-income families. Family Relations, 53, 168-178.
102. Rucker, G. (1994). Status Report on Public Transportation in Rural America. Washington, D.C.: Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, Rural Transit Assistance Program. Retrieved from http://ntl.bts.gov/DOCS/393PTR.html
103. Sameroff, A. (2010). Dynamic developmental systems: Chaos and order. In G. Evans & T. Wachs (Eds.), Chaos and its influence on children's development: An ecological perspective (pp. 255-264). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
104. Sampson, R. J., Morenoff, J. D., & Gannon-Rowley, T. (2002). Assessing "neighborhood effects": Social processes and new directions in research. Annual Review of Sociology, 28, 443-478.
105. Schulz, A. J., Israel, B. A., Zenk, S. N., Parker, E. A., Lichtenstein, R., Shellman-Weir, S., et al. (2006). Psychosocial stress and social support as mediators of relationships between income, length of residence, and depressive symptoms among African American women on Detroit's eastside. Social Science and Medicine, 62(2), 510-522.
106. Scott, E., London, A, & Hurst, A. (2005). Instability in patchworks of child care when moving from welfare to work. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 370-386.
107. Snyder, A. R., & McLaughlin, D. K. (2004). Female-headed families and poverty in rural America. Rural Sociology, 69, 127-149.
108. Strong, D. A., Del Grosso, P., Burwick, A., Jethwani, V., & Ponza, M. (2005). Rural research needs and data sources for selected human services topics: Volume 1. Research needs (Mathematica Policy Research). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
109. Struthers, C. B., & Bokemeier, J. L. (2000). Myths and realities of raising children and creating family life in a rural county. Journal of Family Issues, 21, 17-46.
110. Subramanian, S. V., Kubzansky, L., Berkman, L., Fay, M., & Kawachi, I. (2006). Neighborhood effects on the self-rated health of elders: Uncovering the relative importance of structural and service-related neighborhood environments. Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 61(3), S153-160.
111. Summers, G. (1995). Persistent rural poverty. In E. Castle (Ed.), The changing American countryside: Rural people and places (pp. 213-228). Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
112. Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Bornstein, M. H., Kahana-Kalman, R., Baumwell, L., & Cyphers, L. (1998). Predicting variation in the timing of linguistic milestones in the second year: An events-history approach. Journal of Child Language, 25, 675-700.
113. Taylor, R. D., & Roberts, D. (1995). Kinship support and maternal and adolescent well-being in economically disadvantaged African-American families. Child Development, 66, 1585-1597.
114. Thompson, E., & Krause, N. (2000). Living alone and neighborhood characteristics as predictors of social support in late life. Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 55, 245-253.
115. Tomasello, M., & Farrar, M. J. (1986). Joint attention and early language. Child Development, 57, 1454-1463.
116. Tomasello, M., & Todd, J. (1983). Joint attention and lexical acquisition style. First Language, 4(12), 197-211.
117. Valiente, C., Lemery-Chalfant, K. & Reiser, M (2007). Pathways to problem behaviors: Chaotic homes, parent and child effortful control, and parenting. Social Development, 16(2), 249-267. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00383.x.
118. Vernon-Feagans, L., Gallagher, K., & Kainz, K. (2010). The transition to school in rural America: A focus on literacy. In J. Eccles & J. Meece (Eds.), Handbook of research on schools, schooling and human development (pp. 163-184). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
119. Vernon-Feagans, L., Garrett-Peters, P., Willoughby, M., & Mills-Koonce, R., & The Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2011). Chaos, poverty, and parenting: Predictors of early language development. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.11.001
120. Wachs, T. D. (1986). Noise in the nursery: Ambient background noise and early development. Children's Environments Quarterly, 3(1), 23-33.
121. Wachs, T. D. (1987). Specificity of environmental action as manifest in environmental correlates of infant's mastery motivation. Developmental Psychology, 23(6), 782-790.
122. Wachs, T. D. (1989). The nature of the physical microenvironment: An expanded classification system. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 35, 399-419.
123. Wachs, T. D., & Chan, A. (1986). Specificity of environmental action, as seen in environmental correlates of infants' communication performance. Child Development, 57, 1464-1474.
124. Walker, S. K., & Reschke, K. L. (2004). Child care use by low-income families in rural areas: A contemporary look at the influence of women's work and partner availability. Journal of Children and Poverty, 10(2), 149-167.
125. Watt, N., Wetherby, A. M., & Shumway, S. (2006). Prelinguistic predictors of language outcome at 3 years of age. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49, 1224-1237.
126. Weber, B., Duncan, G., Whitener, L., & Miller, K. (2003). Still left behind, but gaining ground: Rural poverty in America. Perspectives on Poverty, Policy, and Place, 1(1), 3-5.
127. Whitener, L. A., Duncan, G. J., & Weber, B. A. (2002). Reforming welfare: What does it mean for rural areas? (Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Report Number 26-4). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
128. Young, A., Russell, A., & Powers, J. (2004). The sense of belonging to a neighborhood: Can it be measured and is it related to health and well being in older women? Social Science and Medicine, 59, 2627-2637.
129. Zimmerman, J. N., & Hirschl, T. A. (2003). Welfare reform in rural areas: A voyage through uncharted waters. In D. L. Brown, L. E. Swanson, & A. W. Barton (Eds.), Challenges for rural America in the twenty-first century (pp. 363-374). University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.