A Systematic Review of the Comparative Epidemiology of Avian and Human Influenza A H5N1 and H7N9 – Lessons and Unanswered Questions

Transboundary and Emerging Diseases

Volumn 63, Issue 6, 2016, Pages 602-620

  Bui, C ^a   Bethmont, A ^a   Chughtai, A A ^a   Gardner, L ^b   Sarkar, S ^c   Hassan, S ^a   Seale, H ^a   MacIntyre, C R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

Author keywords

avian influenza epidemiology; exposure; H5N1; H7N9; poultry; transmission

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; BIRD; CHINA; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INFLUENZA A VIRUS (H5N1); INFLUENZA A VIRUS (H7N9); INFLUENZA IN BIRDS; INFLUENZA, HUMAN; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; POULTRY; VIROLOGY; WILD ANIMAL;

ANIMALS; ANIMALS, WILD; BIRDS; CHINA; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; INFLUENZA A VIRUS, H5N1 SUBTYPE; INFLUENZA A VIRUS, H7N9 SUBTYPE; INFLUENZA IN BIRDS; INFLUENZA, HUMAN; POULTRY;

EID: 84923106093     PISSN: 18651674     EISSN: 18651682     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12327     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. Abdel-Ghafar, A. N., T. Chotpitayasunondh, Z. Gao, F. G. Hayden, D. H. Nguyen, M. D. de Jong, A. Naghdaliyev, J. S. Peiris, N. Shindo, S. Soeroso, and T. M. Uyeki, 2008: Update on avian influenza A (H5N1) virus infection in humans. N. Engl. J. Med. 358, 261–273.
2. Abdelwhab, E. M., A. A. Selim, A. Arafa, S. Galal, W. H. Kilany, M. K. Hassan, M. M. Aly, and M. H. Hafez, 2010: Circulation of avian influenza H5N1 in live bird markets in Egypt. Avian Dis. 54, 911–914.
3. Alexander, D. J., 2007: An overview of the epidemiology of avian influenza. Vaccine 25, 5637–5644.
4. ® software, Available at www.esri.com (accessed August 28, 2014).
5. Bai, T., J. Zhou, and Y. Shu, 2013: Serologic study for influenza A (H7N9) among high-risk groups in China. N. Engl. J. Med. 368, 2339–2340.
6. Baigent, S. J., and J. W. McCauley, 2001: Glycosylation of haemagglutinin and stalk-length of neuraminidase combine to regulate the growth of avian influenza viruses in tissue culture. Virus Res. 79, 177–185.
7. Bean, W. J., Y. Kawaoka, J. M. Wood, J. E. Pearson, and R. G. Webster, 1985: Characterization of virulent and avirulent A/chicken/Pennsylvania/83 influenza A viruses: potential role of defective interfering RNAs in nature. J. Virol. 54, 151–160.
8. Beigel, J. H., J. Farrar, A. M. Han, F. G. Hayden, R. Hyer, M. D. de Jong, S. Lochindarat, T. K. Nguyen, T. H. Nguyen, T. H. Tran, A. Nicoll, S. Touch, and K. Y. Yuen, 2005: Avian influenza A (H5N1) infection in humans. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 1374–1385.
9. Busquets, N., A. Alba, S. Napp, A. Sanchez, E. Serrano, R. Rivas, J. I. Nunez, and N. Majo, 2010: Influenza A virus subtypes in wild birds in North-Eastern Spain (Catalonia). Virus Res. 149, 10–18.
10. Cauthen, A. N., D. E. Swayne, S. Schultz-Cherry, M. L. Perdue, and D. L. Suarez, 2000: Continued circulation in China of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses encoding the hemagglutinin gene associated with the 1997 H5N1 outbreak in poultry and humans. J. Virol. 74, 6592–6599.
11. Chan, J. F., K. K. To, H. Tse, D. Y. Jin, and K. Y. Yuen, 2013: Interspecies transmission and emergence of novel viruses: lessons from bats and birds. Trends Microbiol. 21, 544–555.
12. Chen, H., G. Deng, Z. Li, G. Tian, Y. Li, P. Jiao, L. Zhang, Z. Liu, R. G. Webster, K. Yu, H. Chen, G. Deng, Z. Li, G. Tian, Y. Li, P. Jiao, L. Zhang, Z. Liu, R. G. Webster, and K. Yu, 2004: The evolution of H5N1 influenza viruses in Ducks in Southern China. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 10452–10457.
13. Chen, H., G. J. Smith, S. Y. Zhang, K. Qin, J. Wang, K. S. Li, R. G. Webster, J. S. Peiris, and Y. Guan, 2005: Avian flu: H5N1 virus outbreak in migratory waterfowl. Nature 436, 191–192.
14. Chen, H., Y. Li, Z. Li, J. Shi, K. Shinya, G. Deng, A. Q. Qi, G. Tian, S. F. fan, H. Zhao, Y. Sun, and Y. Kawaoka, 2006a: Properties and dissemination of H5N1 viruses isolated during an influenza outbreak in migratory waterfowl in western China. J. Virol. 80, 5976–5983.
15. Chen, H., G. J. Smith, K. S. Li, J. Wang, X. H. Fan, J. M. Rayner, D. Vijaykrishna, J. X. Zhang, L. J. Zhang, C. T. Guo, C. L. Cheung, K. M. Xu, L. Duan, K. Huang, K. Qin, Y. H. Leung, W. L. Wu, H. R. Lu, Y. Chen, N. S. Xia, T. S. Naipospos, K. Y. Yuen, S. S. Hassan, S. Bahri, T. D. Nguyen, R. G. Webster, J. S. Peiris, and Y. Guan, 2006b: Establishment of multiple sublineages of H5N1 influenza virus in Asia: implications for pandemic control. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103, 2845–2850.
16. Choi, Y. K., T. D. Nguyen, H. Ozaki, R. J. Webby, P. Puthavathana, C. Buranathal, A. Chaisingh, P. Auewarakul, N. T. Hanh, S. K. Ma, P. Y. Hui, Y. Guan, J. S. Peiris, and R. G. Webster, 2005: Studies of H5N1 influenza virus infection of pigs by using viruses isolated in Vietnam and Thailand in 2004. J. Virol. 79, 10821–10825.
17. Chotpitayasunondh, T., K. Ungchusak, W. Hanshaoworakul, S. Chunsuthiwat, P. Sawanpanyalert, R. Kijphati, S. Lochindarat, P. Srisan, P. Suwan, Y. Osotthanakorn, T. Anantasetagoon, S. Kanjanawasri, S. Tanupattarachai, J. Weerakul, R. Chaiwirattana, M. Maneerattanaporn, R. Poolsavatkitikool, K. Chokephaibulkit, A. Apisarnthanarak, and S. F. Dowell, 2005: Human Disease from Influenza A (H5N1), Thailand, 2004. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11, 201–209.
18. Chowell, G., L. Simonsen, S. Towers, M. A. Miller, C. Viboud, G. Chowell, L. Simonsen, S. Towers, M. A. Miller, and C. Viboud, 2013: Transmission potential of influenza A/H7N9, February to May 2013, China. (Research article)(Report). BMC Med. 11, 214.
19. Cowling, B. J., L. Jin, E. H. Y. Lau, Q. Liao, P. Wu, H. Jiang, T. K. Tsang, J. Zheng, V. J. Fang, Z. Chang, M. Y. Ni, Q. Zhang, D. K. M. Ip, J. Yu, Y. Li, L. Wang, W. Tu, L. Meng, J. T. Wu, H. Luo, Q. Li, Y. Shu, Z. Li, Z. Feng, W. Yang, Y. Wang, G. M. Leung, and H. Yu, 2013: Comparative epidemiology of human infections with avian influenza A H7N9 and H5N1 viruses in China: a population-based study of laboratory-confirmed cases. Lancet 382, 129–137.
20. Cui, L., D. Liu, W. Shi, J. Pan, X. Qi, X. Li, X. Guo, M. Zhou, W. Li, J. Li, J. Haywood, H. Xiao, X. Yu, X. Pu, Y. Wu, H. Yu, K. Zhao, Y. Zhu, B. Wu, T. Jin, Z. Shi, F. Tang, F. Zhu, Q. Sun, L. Wu, R. Yang, J. Yan, F. Lei, B. Zhu, W. Liu, J. Ma, H. Wang, and G. F. Gao, 2014: Dynamic reassortments and genetic heterogeneity of the human-infecting influenza A (H7N9) virus. Nat. Commun. 5, 3142.
21. Duan, L., E. Foni, C. Chiapponi, W. L. Wu, H. Kai, R. G. Webster, K. F. Shortridge, J. S. M. Peiris, G. J. D. Smith, H. Chen, Y. Guan, L. Campitelli, X. H. Fan, Y. H. C. Leung, D. Vijaykrishna, J. X. Zhang, I. Donatelli, M. Delogu, and K. S. Li, 2007: Characterization of low-pathogenic H5 subtype influenza viruses from Eurasia: implications for the origin of highly pathogenic H5N1 viruses. J. Virol. 81, 7529–7539.
22. Dubey, S. C., N. Dahal, S. Nagarajan, C. Tosh, H. V. Murugkar, K. Rinzin, B. Sharma, R. Jain, M. Katare, S. Patil, R. Khandia, Z. Syed, S. Tripathi, P. Behera, M. Kumar, D. D. Kulkarni, and L. Krishna, 2012: Isolation and characterization of influenza A virus (subtype H5N1) that caused the first highly pathogenic avian influenza outbreak in chicken in Bhutan. Vet. Microbiol. 155, 100–105.
23. Ducatez, M. F., C. M. Olinger, A. A. Owoade, S. De Landtsheer, W. Ammerlaan, H. G. Niesters, A. D. Osterhaus, R. A. Fouchier, and C. P. Muller, 2006: Avian flu: multiple introductions of H5N1 in Nigeria. Nature 442, 37.
24. Ellis, T. M., R. Barry Bousfield, L. A. Bissett, K. C. Dyrting, G. S. M. Luk, S. T. Tsim, K. Sturm-ramirez, R. G. Webster, Y. Guan, J. S. M. Peiris, T. M. Ellis, R. Barry Bousfield, L. A. Bissett, K. C. Dyrting, G. S. M. Luk, S. T. Tsim, K. Sturm-ramirez, R. G. Webster, Y. Guan, and J. S. M. Peiris, 2004: Investigation of outbreaks of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza in waterfowl and wild birds in Hong Kong in late 2002. Avian Pathol. 33, 492–505.
25. El-Zoghby, E. F., M. M. Aly, S. A. Nasef, M. K. Hassan, A. S. Arafa, A. A. Selim, S. G. Kholousy, W. H. Kilany, M. Safwat, E. M. Abdelwhab, and H. M. Hafez, 2013: Surveillance on A/H5N1 virus in domestic poultry and wild birds in Egypt. Virol. J. 10, 203.
26. Fan, M., B. Huang, A. Wang, L. Deng, D. Wu, X. Lu, Q. Zhao, S.Xu, F. Havers, Y. Wang, J. Wu, Y. Yin, B. Sun, J. Yao, and N. Xiang, 2014: Human Influenza A(H7N9) Virus Infection Associated with Poultry Farm, Northeastern China. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 20, 1902–1905.
27. Fang, L. Q., S. J. de Vlas, S. Liang, C. W. Looman, P. Gong, B. Xu, L. Yan, H. Yang, J. H. Richardus, and W. C. Cao, 2008: Environmental factors contributing to the spread of H5N1 avian influenza in mainland China. PLoS One 3, e2268.
28. Fang, L.-Q., X.-L. Li, K. Liu, Y.-J. Li, H.-W. Yao, S. Liang, Y. Yang, Z.-J. Feng, G. C. Gray, and W.-C. Cao, 2013: Mapping Spread and Risk of Avian Influenza A (H7N9) in China. Sci. Rep. 3, Article No. 2722.
29. Farnsworth, M. L., and M. P. Ward, 2009: Identifying spatio-temporal patterns of transboundary disease spread: examples using avian influenza H5N1 outbreaks. Vet. Res. 40, 20.
30. Farnsworth, M. L., S. Fitchett, M. M. Hidayat, C. Lockhart, C. Hamilton-West, E. Brum, S. Angus, B. Poermadjaja, and J. Pinto, 2011: Metapopulation dynamics and determinants of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza outbreaks in Indonesian poultry. Prev. Vet. Med. 102, 206–217.
31. Ferguson, N. M., C. Fraser, C. A. Donnelly, A. C. Ghani, R. M. Anderson, N. M. Ferguson, C. Fraser, C. A. Donnelly, A. C. Ghani, and R. M. Anderson, 2004: Public Health Risk from the Avian H5N1 Influenza Epidemic. Science 304, 968–969.
32. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 2014: EMPRES-i Global Animal Disease Information System. 02/04/2014 edn.
33. Fournie, G., J. Guitian, S. Desvaux, P. Mangtani, S. Ly, V. C. Cong, S. San, H. Dung do, D. Holl, D. U. Pfeiffer, S. Vong, and A. C. Ghani, 2012: Identifying live bird markets with the potential to act as reservoirs of avian influenza A (H5N1) virus: a survey in northern Viet Nam and Cambodia. PLoS One 7, e37986.
34. Gaidet, N., P. Gil, I. Monne, A. Fusaro, I. Capua, S. Manu, P. Micheloni, U. Ottosson, J. H. Mshelbwala, J. Lubroth, J. Domenech, G. Cattoli, F. Monicat, S. Hammoumi, S. H. Newman, W. Hagemeijer, J. Y. Takekawa, J. Cappelle, T. Dodman, and T. Joannis, 2008: Evidence of infection by H5N2 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses in healthy wild waterfowl. PLoS Pathog. 4, e1000127.
35. Gao, H. N., H. Z. Lu, B. Cao, B. Du, H. Shang, J. H. Gan, S. H. Lu, Y. D. Yang, Q. Fang, Y. Z. Shen, X. M. Xi, Q. Gu, X. M. Zhou, H. P. Qu, Z. Yan, F. M. Li, W. Zhao, Z. C. Gao, G. F. Wang, L. X. Ruan, W. H. Wang, J. Ye, H. F. Cao, X. W. Li, W. H. Zhang, X. C. Fang, J. He, W. F. Liang, J. Xie, M. Zeng, X. Z. Wu, J. Li, Q. Xia, Z. C. Jin, Q. Chen, C. Tang, Z. Y. Zhang, B. M. Hou, Z. X. Feng, J. F. Sheng, N. S. Zhong, and L. J. Li, 2013a: Clinical findings in 111 cases of influenza A (H7N9) virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 368, 2277–2285.
36. Gao, R., B. Cao, Y. Hu, Z. Feng, D. Wang, W. Hu, J. Chen, Z. Jie, H. Qiu, K. Xu, X. Xu, H. Lu, W. Zhu, Z. Gao, N. Xiang, Y. Shen, Z. He, Y. Gu, Z. Zhang, Y. Yang, X. Zhao, L. Zhou, X. Li, S. Zou, Y. Zhang, X. Li, L. Yang, J. Guo, J. Dong, Q. Li, L.Dong, Y. Zhu, T. Bai, S. Wang, P. Hao, W. Yang, Y. Zhang, J. Han, H. Yu, D. Li, G. F. Gao, G. Wu, Y. Wang, Z. Yuan, and Y. Shu, 2013b: Human infection with a novel avian-origin influenza A (H7N9) virus. N. Engl. J. Med. 368, 1888–1897.
37. Gilbert, M., X. Xiao, J. Domenech, J. Lubroth, V. Martin, and J.Slingenbergh, 2006: Anatidae migration in the western palearctic and spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12, 1650–1656.
38. Gilbert, M., L. Jambal, W. B. Karesh, A. Fine, E. Shiilegdamba, P. Dulam, R. Sodnomdarjaa, K. Ganzorig, D. Batchuluun, N. Tseveenmyadag, P. Bolortuya, C. J. Cardona, C. Y. Leung, J. S. Peiris, E. Spackman, D. E. Swayne, and D. O. Joly, 2012: Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus among wild birds in Mongolia. PLoS One 7, e44097.
39. Gilbert, M., N. Golding, H. Zhou, G. R. Wint, T. P. Robinson, A. J. Tatem, S. Lai, S. Zhou, H. Jiang, D. Guo, Z. Huang, J. P. Messina, X. Xiao, C. Linard, T. P. Van Boeckel, V. Martin, S. Bhatt, P. W. Gething, J. J. Farrar, S. I. Hay, and H. Yu, 2014: Predicting the risk of avian influenza A H7N9 infection in live-poultry markets across Asia. Nat. Commun. 5, 4116.
40. Gilsdorf, A., N. Boxall, V. Gasimov, I. Agayev, F. Mammadzade, P. Ursu, E. Gasimov, C. Brown, S. Mardel, D. Jankovic, G. Pimentel, I. A. Ayoub, E. M. Elassal, C. Salvi, D. Legros, C. Pessoa da Silva, A. Hay, R. Andraghetti, G. Rodier, and B. Ganter, 2006: Two clusters of human infection with influenza A/H5N1 virus in the Republic of Azerbaijan, February–March 2006. Euro. Surveill. 11, 122–126.
41. Guan, Y., K. F. Shortridge, S. Krauss, and R. G. Webster, 1999: Molecular characterization of H9N2 influenza viruses: were they the donors of the “internal” genes of H5N1 viruses in Hong Kong? Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 96, 9363–9367.
42. Guan, Y., J. S. Peiris, A. S. Lipatov, T. M. Ellis, K. C. Dyrting, S. Krauss, L. J. Zhang, R. G. Webster, and K. F. Shortridge, 2002: Emergence of multiple genotypes of H5N1 avian influenza viruses in Hong Kong SAR. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 99, 8950–8955.
43. Hai-bo, W., L. Ru-feng, W. En-kang, Y. Jin-biao, W. Yi-ting, W. Qiao-gang, X. Li-hua, W. Nan-ping, and G. Chao-tan, 2012: Sequence and phylogenetic analysis of H7N3 avian influenza viruses isolated from poultry in China in 2011. Arch. Virol. 157, 2017–2021.
44. Han, J., M. Jin, P. Zhang, J. Liu, L. Wang, D. Wen, X. Wu, G. Liu, Y. Zou, Y. Lv, X. Dong, B. Shao, S. Gu, D. Zhou, Q. Leng, C. Zhang, and K. Lan, 2013: Epidemiological link between exposure to poultry and all influenza A(H7N9) confirmed cases in Huzhou city, China, March to May 2013. Euro. Surveill. 18, 32–37.
45. Han, J., J. Liu, L. Wang, P. Zhang, G. Liu, K. Lan, and C. Zhang, 2014: Persistent detection of avian influenza A/H7N9 virus among poultry in Huzhou City, China, in the summer of 2013. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 26, 72–75.
46. Happold, J. R., I. Brunhart, H. Schwermer, and K. D. Stark, 2008: Surveillance of H5 avian influenza virus in wild birds found dead. Avian Dis. 52, 100–105.
47. Herfst, S., D. J. Smith, G. F. Rimmelzwaan, A. D. M. E. Osterhaus, R. A. M. Fouchier, E. J. A. Schrauwen, M. Linster, S. Chutinimitkul, E. de Wit, V. J. Munster, E. M. Sorrell, T. M. Bestebroer, and D. F. Burke, 2012: Airborne transmission of influenza A/H5N1 virus between ferrets. Science 336, 1534–1541.
48. Hien, T. T., N. T. Liem, N. T. Dung, L. T. San, P. P. Mai, N. V. V. Chau, P. T. Suu, V. C. Dong, L. T. Q. Mai, N. T. Thi, D. B. Khoa, L. P. Phat, N. T. Truong, H. T. Long, C. V. Tung, L. T. Giang, N. D. Tho, L. H. Nga, N. T. K. Tien, L. H. San, L. V. Tuan, C. Dolecek, T. T. Thanh, M. de Jong, C. Schultsz, P. Cheng, W. Lim, P. Horby, and J. Farrar, 2004: Avian influenza A (H5N1) in 10 Patients in Vietnam. N. Engl. J. Med. 350, 1179–1188.
49. Hoffmann, E., J. Stech, I. Leneva, S. Krauss, C. Scholtissek, P. S. Chin, M. Peiris, K. F. Shortridge, and R. G. Webster, 2000: Characterization of the influenza A virus gene pool in avian species in southern China: was H6N1 a derivative or a precursor of H5N1? J. Virol. 74, 6309–6315.
50. Horimoto, T., E. Rivera, J. Pearson, D. Senne, S. Krauss, Y. Kawaoka, and R. G. Webster, 1995: Origin and molecular changes associated with emergence of a highly pathogenic H5N2 influenza virus in Mexico. Virology 213, 223–230.
51. Horm, S. V., S. Sorn, L. Allal, and P. Buchy, 2013: Influenza A(H5N1) virus surveillance at live poultry markets, Cambodia, 2011. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 19, 305–308.
52. Huai, Y., N. Xiang, L. Zhou, L. Feng, Z. Peng, R. S. Chapman, T. M. Uyeki, and H. Yu, 2008: Incubation period for human cases of avian influenza A (H5N1) infection, China. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14, 1819–1821.
53. Hulse-Post, D. J., T. D. Nguyen, H. T. Long, T. S. P. Naipospos, H. Chen, T. M. Ellis, Y. Guan, J. S. M. Peiris, R. G. Webster, K. M. Sturm-Ramirez, J. Humberd, P. Seiler, E. A. Govorkova, S. Krauss, C. Scholtissek, P. Puthavathana, and C. Buranathai, 2005: Role of domestic ducks in the propagation and biological evolution of highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza viruses in Asia. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 102, 10682–10687.
54. Imai, M., S. Watanabe, C. Li, E. Kawakami, S. Yamada, M. Kiso, Y. Suzuki, E. A. Maher, G. Neumann, Y. Kawaoka, T. Watanabe, M. Hatta, S. C. Das, M. Ozawa, K. Shinya, G. Zhong, A. Hanson, and H. Katsura, 2012: Experimental adaptation of an influenza H5 HA confers respiratory droplet transmission to a reassortant H5 HA/H1N1 virus in ferrets. Nature 486, 420.
55. Jiang, W. M., S. Liu, J. Chen, G. Y. Hou, J. P. Li, Y. F. Cao, Q. Y. Zhuang, Y. Li, B. X. Huang, and J. M. Chen, 2010: Molecular epidemiological surveys of H5 subtype highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses in poultry in China during 2007–2009. J. Gen. Virol. 91, 2491–2496.
56. Joannis, T. M., C. A. Meseko, A. T. Oladokun, H. G. Ularamu, A. N. Egbuji, P. Solomon, D. C. Nyam, D. A. Gado, P. Luka, M. E. Ogedengbe, M. B. Yakubu, A. D. Tyem, O. Akinyede, A. I. Shittu, L. K. Sulaiman, O. A. Owolodun, A. K. Olawuyi, E. T. Obishakin, and F. O. Fasina, 2008: Serologic and virologic surveillance of avian influenza in Nigeria, 2006–7. Euro. Surveill. 13, 11–15.
57. Jones, J. C., S. Sonnberg, Z. A. Kocer, K. Shanmuganatham, P. Seiler, Y. Shu, H. Zhu, Y. Guan, M. Peiris, R. J. Webby, and R. G. Webster, 2014: Possible role of songbirds and parakeets in transmission of influenza A(H7N9) virus to humans. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 20, 380–385.
58. Kageyama, T., S. Fujisaki, E. Takashita, H. Xu, S. Yamada, Y. Uchida, G. Neumann, T. Saito, Y. Kawaoka, and M. Tashiro, 2013: Genetic analysis of novel avian A(H7N9) influenza viruses isolated from patients in China, February to April 2013. Euro. Surveill. 18, 20453.
59. Kandeel, A., S. Manoncourt, E. Abd el Kareem, A. N. Mohamed Ahmed, S. El-Refaie, H. Essmat, J. Tjaden, C. C. de Mattos, K. C. Earhart, A. A. Marfin, and N. El-Sayed, 2010: Zoonotic transmission of avian influenza virus (H5N1), Egypt, 2006–2009. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 16, 1101–1107.
60. Keawcharoen, J., K. Oraveerakul, T. Kuiken, R. A. Fouchier, A. Amonsin, S. Payungporn, S. Noppornpanth, S. Wattanodorn, A. Theambooniers, R. Tantilertcharoen, R. Pattanarangsan, N. Arya, P. Ratanakorn, D. M. Osterhaus, and Y. Poovorawan, 2004: Avian influenza H5N1 in tigers and leopards. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10, 2189–2191.
61. Kida, H., R. Yanagawa, and Y. Matsuoka, 1980: Duck influenza lacking evidence of disease signs and immune response. Infect. Immun. 30, 547–553.
62. Kilpatrick, A. M., A. A. Chmura, D. W. Gibbons, R. C. Fleischer, P. P. Marra, and P. Daszak, 2006: Predicting the global spread of H5N1 avian influenza. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103, 19368–19373.
63. Kim, B. S., H. M. Kang, J. G. Choi, M. C. Kim, H. R. Kim, M. R. Paek, J. H. Kwon, and Y. J. Lee, 2011: Characterization of the low-pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza virus in South Korea. Poult. Sci. 90, 1449–1461.
64. Kim, H. R., C. K. Park, Y. J. Lee, J. K. Oem, H. M. Kang, J. G. Choi, O. S. Lee, and Y. C. Bae, 2012: Low pathogenic H7 subtype avian influenza viruses isolated from domestic ducks in South Korea and the close association with isolates of wild birds. J. Gen. Virol. 93, 1278–1287.
65. Klopfleisch, R., P. U. Wolf, C. Wolf, T. Harder, E. Starick, M. Niebuhr, T. C. Mettenleiter, and J. P. Teifke, 2007: Encephalitis in a stone marten (Martes foina) after natural infection with highly pathogenic avian influenza virus subtype H5N1. J.Comp. Pathol. 137, 155–159.
66. Ku, K. B., E. H. Park, J. Yum, H. M. Kim, Y. M. Kang, J. C. Kim, J. A. Kim, H. S. Kim, and S. H. Seo, 2014: Transmissibility of novel H7N9 and H9N2 avian influenza viruses between chickens and ferrets. Virology 450–451, 316–323.
67. Kwon, Y. K., H. W. Sung, S. J. Joh, Y. J. Lee, M. C. Kim, J. G. Choi, E. K. Lee, S. H. Wee, and J. H. Kim, 2005: An outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza subtype H5N1 in broiler breeders, Korea. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 67, 1193–1196.
68. Lam, T. T.-Y., J. Wang, Y. Shen, B. Zhou, L. Duan, C.-L. Cheung, C. Ma, S. J. Lycett, C. Y.-H. Leung, X. Chen, L. Li, W. Hong, Y. Chai, L. Zhou, H. Liang, Z. Ou, Y. Liu, A. Farooqui, D. J. Kelvin, L. L. M. Poon, D. K. Smith, O. G. Pybus, G. M. Leung, Y. Shu, R. G. Webster, R. J. Webby, J. S. M. Peiris, A. Rambaut, H. Zhu, and Y. Guan, 2013: The genesis and source of the H7N9 influenza viruses causing human infections in China. Nature 502, 241–244.
69. Le, T. H., and N. T. Nguyen, 2014: Evolutionary dynamics of highly pathogenic avian influenza A/H5N1 HA clades and vaccine implementation in Vietnam. Clin. Exp. Vaccine Res. 3, 117–127.
70. Lebarbenchon, C., S. Sreevatsan, M. A. Ramakrishnan, R. Poulson, V. Goekjian, J. J. Di Matteo, B. Wilcox, and D. E. Stallknecht, 2010: Influenza A viruses in American White Pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos). J. Wildl. Dis. 46, 1284–1289.
71. Lee, Y.-J., Y.-K. Choi, Y.-J. Kim, M.-S. Song, O.-M. Jeong, E.-K. Lee, W.-J. Jeon, W. Jeong, S.-J. Joh, K.-S. Choi, M. Her, M.-C. Kim, A. Kim, M.-J. Kim, E. h. Lee, T.-G. Oh, H.-J. Moon, D.-W. Yoo, J.-H. Kim, M.-H. Sung, H. Poo, J.-H. Kwon, and C.-J. Kim, 2008: Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N1) in domestic poultry and relationship with migratory birds, South Korea. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14, 487–490.
72. Lee, D. H., J. K. Park, H. N. Youn, Y. N. Lee, T. H. Lim, M. S. Kim, J. B. Lee, S. Y. Park, I. S. Choi, and C. S. Song, 2011: Surveillance and isolation of HPAI H5N1 from wild Mandarin Ducks (Aix galericulata). J. Wildl. Dis. 47, 994–998.
73. Leschnik, M., J. Weikel, K. Mostl, S. Revilla-Fernandez, E. Wodak, Z. Bago, E. Vanek, V. Benetka, M. Hess, and J. G. Thalhammer, 2007: Subclinical infection with avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in cats. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13, 243–247.
74. Li, K. S., Y. Guan, J. Wang, G. J. Smith, K. M. Xu, L. Duan, A. P. Rahardjo, P. Puthavathana, C. Buranathai, T. D. Nguyen, A. T. Estoepangestie, A. Chaisingh, P. Auewarakul, H. T. Long, N. T. Hanh, R. J. Webby, L. L. Poon, H. Chen, K. F. Shortridge, K. Y. Yuen, R. G. Webster, and J. S. Peiris, 2004: Genesis of a highly pathogenic and potentially pandemic H5N1 influenza virus in eastern Asia. Nature 430, 209–213.
75. Li, Q., L. Zhou, M. Zhou, Z. Chen, F. Li, H. Wu, N. Xiang, E. Chen, F. Tang, D. Wang, L. Meng, Z. Hong, W. Tu, Y. Cao, L. Li, F. Ding, B. Liu, M. Wang, R. Xie, R. Gao, X. Li, T. Bai, S. Zou, J. He, J. Hu, Y. Xu, C. Chai, S. Wang, Y. Gao, L. Jin, Y. Zhang, H. Luo, H. Yu, X. Wang, L. Gao, X. Pang, G. Liu, Y. Yan, H. Yuan, Y. Shu, W. Yang, Y. Wang, F. Wu, T. M. Uyeki, and Z. Feng, 2014: Epidemiology of human infections with avian influenza A(H7N9) virus in China. N. Engl. J. Med. 370, 520–532.
76. Liang, L., B. Xu, Y. Chen, Y. Liu, W. Cao, L. Fang, L. Feng, M. F. Goodchild, and P. Gong, 2010: Combining spatial-temporal and phylogenetic analysis approaches for improved understanding on global H5N1 transmission. PLoS One 5, e13575.
77. Liem, N. T., C. V. Tung, N. D. Hien, T. T. Hien, N. Q. Chau, H. T. Long, N. T. Hien, Q. Mai le, W. R. Taylor, H. Wertheim, J. Farrar, D. D. Khang, and P. Horby, 2009: Clinical features of human influenza A (H5N1) infection in Vietnam: 2004–2006. Clin. Infect. Dis. 48, 1639–1646.
78. Ling, F., E. Chen, Q. Liu, Z. Miao, and Z. Gong, 2014: Hypothesis on the source, transmission and characteristics of infection of avian influenza A (H7N9) virus – based on analysis of field epidemiological investigation and gene sequence analysis. Zoonoses Public Health 62, 29–37.
79. Liu, J., H. Xiao, F. Lei, Q. Zhu, K. Qin, X. W. Zhang, X. L. Zhang, D. Zhao, G. Wang, Y. Feng, J. Ma, W. Liu, J. Wang, and G. F. Gao, 2005: Highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus infection in migratory birds. Science 309, 1206.
80. Liu, D., W. Shi, Y. Shi, D. Wang, H. Xiao, W. Li, Y. Bi, Y. Wu, X. Li, J. Yan, W. Liu, G. Zhao, W. Yang, Y. Wang, J. Ma, Y. Shu, F. Lei, and G. F. Gao, 2013: Origin and diversity of novel avian influenza A H7N9 viruses causing human infection: phylogenetic, structural, and coalescent analyses. Lancet 381, 1926–1932.
81. Loth, L., M. Gilbert, M. G. Osmani, A. M. Kalam, and X. Xiao, 2010: Risk factors and clusters of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 outbreaks in Bangladesh. Prev. Vet. Med. 96, 104–113.
82. Lu, L., S. J. Lycett, and A. J. Leigh Brown, 2014: Reassortment patterns of avian influenza virus internal segments among different subtypes. BMC Evol. Biol. 14, 16.
83. L'Vov D, K., M. Shchelkanov, P. G. Deriabin, T. V. Grebennikova, A. G. Prilipov, E. A. Nepoklonov, G. G. Onishchenko, N. A. Vlasov, T. I. Aliper, A. D. Zaberezhnyi, D. E. Kireev, O. P. Krasheninnikov, S. T. Kiriukhin, E. I. Burtseva, and A. N. Slepushkin, 2006: Isolation of influenza A/H5N1 virus strains from poultry and wild birds in West Siberia during epizooty (July 2005) and their depositing to the state collection of viruses (August 8, 2005). Vopr. Virusol. 51, 11–14.
84. Macken, C. A., R. J. Webby, and W. J. Bruno, 2006: Genotype turnover by reassortment of replication complex genes from avian influenza A virus. J. Gen. Virol. 87, 2803–2815.
85. Martin, V., M. Gilbert, X. Zhou, E. Marshall, B. Jia, G. Fusheng, M. A. FrancoDixon, N. DeHaan, D. U. Pfeiffer, and R. J. Soares Magalhães, 2011: Risk-based surveillance for avian influenza control along poultry market chains in South China: the value of social network analysis. Prev. Vet. Med. 102, 196–205.
86. Mase, M., K. Tsukamoto, T. Imada, K. Imai, N. Tanimura, K. Nakamura, Y. Yamamoto, T. Hitomi, T. Kira, T. Nakai, M. Kiso, T. Horimoto, Y. Kawaoka, S. Yamaguchi, M. Mase, K. Tsukamoto, T. Imada, K. Imai, N. Tanimura, K. Nakamura, Y. Yamamoto, T. Hitomi, T. Kira, T. Nakai, M. Kiso, T. Horimoto, Y. Kawaoka, and S. Yamaguchi, 2005: Characterization of H5N1 influenza A viruses isolated during the 2003–2004 influenza outbreaks in Japan. Virology 332, 167–176.
87. Ministry of Agriculture, PSROC, 2014: H7N9 monitoring topics, monitoring and epidemic dynamics, veterinary authority, Chaoyang District, Beijing Agricultural Exhibition. Available at http://www.syj.moa.gov.cn/dwyqdt/jczt/ (accessed August 5 2014).
88. Morris, R. S., and R. Jackson, 2005: Historical background on Avian Influenza and Emergence of the H5N1 strain. Epidemiology of H5N1 Avian Influenza in Asia and Implications for Regional Control. A contracted report for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Covering the period January 2003 to February 11, 2005, pp. 2–3. Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, Rome, Italy.
89. Munster, V. J., A. Wallensten, C. Baas, G. F. Rimmelzwaan, M. Schutten, B. Olsen, A. D. M. E. Osterhaus, R. A. M. Fouchier, V. Molekylär, and Hälsouniversitetet and m. Institutionen för klinisk och experimentell, 2005: Mallards and highly pathogenic avian influenza ancestral viruses, northern Europe. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11, 1545–1551.
90. Murhekar, M., Y. Arima, P. Horby, K. A. Vandemaele, S. Vong, F. Zijian, C. K. Lee, A. Li, and World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific Event Management Team, 2013: Avian influenza A(H7N9) and the closure of live bird markets. Western Pac. Surveill. Response J. 4, 4–7.
91. Nagy, A., L. ?erníková, H. Ji?incová, M. Havlí?ková, and J. Horníková, 2014: Local-Scale Diversity and Between-Year Frozen Evolution of Avian Influenza A Viruses in Nature. PLoS ONE 9, e103053.
92. Nguyen, D. C., T. M. Uyeki, S. Jadhao, T. Maines, M. Shaw, Y. Matsuoka, C. Smith, T. Rowe, X. Lu, H. Hall, X. Xu, A. Balish, A. Klimov, T. M. Tumpey, D. E. Swayne, L. P. Huynh, H. K. Nghiem, H. H. Nguyen, L. T. Hoang, N. J. Cox, and J. M. Katz, 2005: Isolation and characterization of avian influenza viruses, including highly pathogenic H5N1, from poultry in live bird markets in Hanoi, Vietnam, in 2001. J. Virol. 79, 4201–4212.
93. Nidom, C. A., R. Takano, S. Yamada, Y. Sakai-Tagawa, S. Daulay, D. Aswadi, T. Suzuki, Y. Suzuki, K. Shinya, K. Iwatsuki-Horimoto, Y. Muramoto, and Y. Kawaoka, 2010: Influenza A (H5N1) viruses from pigs, Indonesia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 16, 1515–1523.
94. Olsen, S., K. Ungchusak, L. Sovann, T. M. Uyeki, S. F. Dowell, N. J. Cox, W. Aldis, and S. Chunsutthiwat, 2005: Family Clustering of Avian Influenza A (H5N1). Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11, 1799–1801.
95. Oner, A. F., A. Bay, S. Arslan, H. Akdeniz, H. A. Sahin, Y. Cesur, S. Epcacan, N. Yilmaz, I. Deger, B. Kizilyildiz, H. Karsen, and M. Ceyhan, 2006: Avian influenza A (H5N1) infection in eastern Turkey in 2006. N. Engl. J. Med. 355, 2179–2185.
96. Pantin-Jackwood, M. J., P. J. Miller, E. Spackman, D. E. Swayne, L. Susta, M. Costa-Hurtado, and D. L. Suarez, 2014: Role of poultry in the spread of novel H7N9 influenza virus in China. J. Virol. 88, 5381–5390.
97. Peiris, J. S. M., M. D. de Jong, and Y. Guan, 2007: Avian Influenza Virus (H5N1): a threat to human health. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 20, 243–267.
98. Pinsent, A., I. M. Blake, M. T. White, and S. Riley, 2014: Surveillance of low pathogenic novel H7N9 avian influenza in commercial poultry barns: detection of outbreaks and estimation of virus introduction time. BMC Infect. Dis. 14, 427.
99. Prosser, D. J., P. Cui, J. Y. Takekawa, M. Tang, Y. Hou, B. M. Collins, B. Yan, N. J. Hill, T. Li, Y. Li, F. Lei, S. Guo, Z. Xing, Y. He, Y. Zhou, D. C. Douglas, W. M. Perry, and S. H. Newman, 2011: Wild bird migration across the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau: a transmission route for highly pathogenic H5N1. PLoS One 6, e17622.
100. Qiu, C., S. Yuan, D. Tian, Y. Yang, A. Zhang, Q. Chen, Y. Wan, Z. Song, J. He, L. Li, J. Sun, M. Zhou, C. Qiu, Z. Zhang, S. Lu, X. Zhang, Y. Hu, and J. Xu, 2014: Epidemiologic report and serologic findings for household contacts of three cases of influenza A (H7N9) virus infection. J. Clin. Virol. 59, 129–131.
101. Rabinowitz, P. M., D. Galusha, S. Vegso, J. Michalove, S. Rinne, M. Scotch, and M. Kane, 2012: Comparison of human and animal surveillance data for H5N1 influenza A in Egypt 2006–2011. PLoS One 7, e43851.
102. Rimmelzwaan, G. F., D. van Riel, M. Baars, T. M. Bestebroer, G. van Amerongen, R. A. Fouchier, A. D. Osterhaus, and T. Kuiken, 2006: Influenza A virus (H5N1) infection in cats causes systemic disease with potential novel routes of virus spread within and between hosts. Am. J. Pathol. 168, 176–183; quiz 364.
103. Sedyaningsih, E. R., S. Isfandari, V. Setiawaty, L. Rifati, S. Harun, W. Purba, S. Imari, S. Giriputra, P. J. Blair, S. D. Putnam, T. M. Uyeki, and T. Soendoro, 2007: Epidemiology of cases of H5N1 virus infection in Indonesia, July 2005–June 2006. J. Infect. Dis. 196, 522–527.
104. Senne, D. A., B. Panigrahy, Y. Kawaoka, J. E. Pearson, J. Suss, M. Lipkind, H. Kida, and R. G. Webster, 1996: Survey of the hemagglutinin (HA) cleavage site sequence of H5 and H7 avian influenza viruses: amino acid sequence at the HA cleavage site as a marker of pathogenicity potential. Avian Dis. 40, 425–437.
105. Shi, J., G. Deng, P. Liu, J. Zhou, L. Guan, W. Li, X. Li, J. Guo, G. Wang, J. Fan, J. Wang, Y. Li, Y. Jiang, L. Liu, G. Tian, C. Li, and H. Chen, 2013: Isolation and characterization of H7N9 viruses from live poultry markets — Implication of the source of current H7N9 infection in humans. Chin. Sci. Bull. 58, 1857–1863.
106. Shortridge, K. F., N. N. Zhou, Y. Guan, P. Gao, T. Ito, Y. Kawaoka, S. Kodihalli, S. Krauss, D. Markwell, K. G. Murti, M. Norwood, D. Senne, L. Sims, A. Takada, and R. G. Webster, 1998: Characterization of avian H5N1 influenza viruses from poultry in Hong Kong. Virology 252, 331–342.
107. Shriner, S. A., K. K. VanDalen, N. L. Mooers, J. W. Ellis, H. J. Sullivan, J. J. Root, A. M. Pelzel, and A. B. Franklin, 2012: Low-pathogenic avian influenza viruses in wild house mice. PLoS One 7, e39206.
108. Sims, L., and M. Jeggo, 2014: Avian influenza from an ecohealth perspective. EcoHealth 11, 4–14.
109. Sims, L. D., T. M. Ellis, K. K. Liu, K. Dyrting, H. Wong, M. Peiris, Y. Guan, and K. F. Shortridge, 2003: Avian influenza in Hong Kong 1997–2002. Avian Dis. 47, 832–838.
110. Skowronski, D. M., N. Z. Janjua, T. L. Kwindt, and G. De Serres, 2013: Virus-host interactions and the unusual age and sex distribution of human cases of influenza A(H7N9) in China, April 2013. Euro. Surveill. 18, 20465.
111. Songserm, T., A. Amonsin, R. Jam-on, N. Sae-Heng, N. Pariyothorn, S. Payungporn, A. Theamboonlers, S. Chutinimitkul, R. Thanawongnuwech, and Y. Poovorawan, 2006a: Fatal avian influenza A H5N1 in a dog. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12, 1744–1747.
112. Songserm, T., R. Jam-on, N. Sae-Heng, N. Meemak, D. J. Hulse-Post, K. M. Sturm-Ramirez, and R. G. Webster, 2006b: Domestic ducks and H5N1 influenza epidemic, Thailand. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12, 575–581.
113. Sorrell, E. M., H. Song, L. Pena, and D. R. Perez, 2010: A 27-amino-acid deletion in the neuraminidase stalk supports replication of an avian H2N2 influenza A virus in the respiratory tract of chickens. J. Virol. 84, 11831–11840.
114. Spackman, E., C.-W. Lee, D. Stallknecht, R. Slemons, H. S. Ip, T. Deliberto, D. E. Swayne, D. L. Suarez, D. A. Senne, J. C. Pedersen, M. L. Killian, J. Pasick, K. Handel, and S. P. S. Pillai, 2007: Characterization of low-pathogenicity H5N1 avian influenza viruses from North America. J. Virol. 81, 11612–11619.
115. Spekreijse, D., A. Bouma, G. Koch, and J. A. Stegeman, 2011: Airborne transmission of a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus strain H5N1 between groups of chickens quantified in an experimental setting. Vet. Microbiol. 152, 88–95.
116. Stallknecht, D. E., and S. M. Shane, 1988: Host range of avian influenza virus in free-living birds. Vet. Res. Commun. 12, 125–141.
117. Sturm-Ramirez, K. M., T. Ellis, B. Bousfield, L. Bissett, K. Dyrting, J. E. Rehg, L. Poon, Y. Guan, M. Peiris, and R. G. Webster, 2004: Reemerging H5N1 influenza viruses in Hong Kong in 2002 are highly pathogenic to ducks. J. Virol. 78, 4892–4901.
118. Sturm-Ramirez, K. M., D. J. Hulse-Post, E. A. Govorkova, J. Humberd, P. Seiler, P. Puthavathana, C. Buranathai, T. D. Nguyen, A. Chaisingh, H. T. Long, T. S. Naipospos, H. Chen, T. M. Ellis, Y. Guan, J. S. Peiris, and R. G. Webster, 2005: Are ducks contributing to the endemicity of highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus in Asia? J. Virol. 79, 11269–11279.
119. Su, S., P. Zhou, X. Fu, L. Wang, M. Hong, G. Lu, L. Sun, W. Qi, Z. Ning, K. Jia, Z. Yuan, H. Wang, C. Ke, J. Wu, G. Zhang, G. C. Gray, and S. Li, 2014: Virological and epidemiological evidence of avian influenza virus infections among feral dogs in live poultry markets, china: a threat to human health? Clin. Infect. Dis. 58, 1644–1646.
120. Subbarao, K., H. Chen, D. Swayne, L. Mingay, E. Fodor, G. Brownlee, X. Xu, X. Lu, J. Katz, N. Cox, and Y. Matsuoka, 2003: Evaluation of a genetically modified reassortant H5N1 influenza A virus vaccine candidate generated by plasmid-based reverse genetics. Virology 305, 192–200.
121. Takekawa, J. Y., D. J. Prosser, B. M. Collins, D. C. Douglas, W. M. Perry, B. Yan, L. Ze, Y. Hou, F. Lei, T. Li, Y. Li, and S. H. Newman, 2013: Movements of wild ruddy shelducks in the central asian flyway and their spatial relationship to outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1. Viruses 5, 2129–2152.
122. Tang, X., G. Tian, J. Zhao, and K. Y. Zhou, 1998: Isolation and characterization of prevalent strains of avian influenza viruses in China. Chin. J. Anim. Poult. Infect. Dis. 20, 1–5.
123. Tiensin, T., M. Nielen, H. Vernooij, T. Songserm, W. Kalpravidh, S. Chotiprasatintara, A. Chaisingh, S. Wongkasemjit, K. Chanachai, W. Thanapongtham, T. Srisuvan, and A. Stegeman, 2007: Transmission of the highly pathogenic avian influenza virus H5N1 within flocks during the 2004 epidemic in Thailand. J. Infect. Dis. 196, 1679–1684.
124. To, K. K., J. F. Chan, H. Chen, L. Li, and K. Y. Yuen, 2013: The emergence of influenza A H7N9 in human beings 16 years after influenza A H5N1: a tale of two cities. Lancet Infect. Dis. 13, 809–821.
125. Ungchusak, K., P. Auewarakul, S. F. Dowell, R. Kitphati, W. Auwanit, P. Puthavathana, M. Uiprasertkul, K. Boonnak, C. Pittayawonganon, N. J. Cox, S. R. Zaki, P. Thawatsupha, M. Chittaganpitch, R. Khontong, J. M. Simmerman, and S. Chunsutthiwat, 2005: Probable person-to-person transmission of avian influenza A (H5N1). N. Engl. J. Med. 352, 333–340.
126. Van Kerkhove, M. D., S. Vong, J. Guitian, D. Holl, P. Mangtani, S. San, and A. C. Ghani, 2009: Poultry movement networks in Cambodia: implications for surveillance and control of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI/H5N1). Vaccine 27, 6345–6352.
127. Wan, X. F., L. Dong, Y. Lan, L. P. Long, C. Xu, S. Zou, Z. Li, L. Wen, Z. Cai, W. Wang, X. Li, F. Yuan, H. Sui, Y. Zhang, J. Dong, S. Sun, Y. Gao, M. Wang, T. Bai, L. Yang, D. Li, W. Yang, H. Yu, S. Wang, Z. Feng, Y. Wang, Y. Guo, R. J. Webby, and Y. Shu, 2011: Indications that live poultry markets are a major source of human H5N1 influenza virus infection in China. J. Virol. 85, 13432–13438.
128. Wang, C., J. Wang, W. Su, S. Gao, J. Luo, M. Zhang, L. Xie, S. Liu, X. Liu, Y. Chen, Y. Jia, H. Zhang, H. Ding, and H. He, 2014a: Relationship between domestic and wild birds in live poultry market and a novel human H7N9 virus in China. J.Infect. Dis. 209, 34–37.
129. Wang, D., L. Yang, R. Gao, X. Zhang, Y. Tan, A. Wu, W. Zhu, J. Zhou, S. Zou, X. Li, Y. Sun, Y. Zhang, Y. Liu, T. Liu, Y. Xiong, J. Xu, L. Chen, Y. Weng, X. Qi, J. Guo, X. Li, J. Dong, W. Huang, Y. Zhang, L. Dong, X. Zhao, L. Liu, J. Lu, Y. Lan, H. Wei, L. Xin, Y. Chen, C. Xu, T. Chen, Y. Zhu, T. Jiang, Z. Feng, W. Yang, Y. Wang, H. Zhu, Y. Guan, G. F. Gao, D. Li, J. Han, S. Wang, G. Wu, and Y. Shu, 2014b: Genetic tuning of the novel avian influenza A(H7N9) virus during interspecies transmission, China, 2013. Euro. Surveill. 19, 33–49.
130. Webster, R. G., Y. Guan, M. Peiris, D. Walker, S. Krauss, N. N. Zhou, E. A. Govorkova, T. M. Ellis, K. C. Dyrting, T. Sit, D. R. Perez, and K. F. Shortridge, 2002: Characterization of H5N1 influenza viruses that continue to circulate in Geese in Southeastern China. J. Virol. 76, 118–126.
131. Wee, S. H., J. H. Lee, C. S. Kim, C. K. Park, H. M. Nam, C. H. Kim, H. Yoon, S. J. Kim, E. S. Lee, B. Y. Lee, and J. H. Kim, 2006: Outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N1) in the Republic of Korea in 2003/04. Vet. Rec. 158, 341–344.
132. World Health Organization, 2011: H5N1 avian influenza: timeline of major events. Available at http://www.who.int/influenza/human_animal_interface/avian_influenza/H5N1_avian_influenza_update.pdf (accessed April 4, 2014).
133. World Health Organization, 2014a: Cumulative number of confirmed human cases of avian influenza A(H5N1) reported to WHO, 2003–2014. Available at http://www.who.int/influenza/human_animal_interface/H5N1_cumulative_table_archives/en/index.html. (accessed April 4, 2014).
134. World Health Organization, 2014b: Global outbreak and alert response network archives. Available at http://www.who.int/csr/don/archive/year/2014/en/ (accessed April 20, 2014).
135. World Health Organization, 2014c: H7N9 data reports. Available at http://www.who.int/influenza/human_animal_interface/influenza_h7n9/Data_Reports/en/ (accessed April 20, 2014).
136. World Organisation for Animal Health, 2014: OIE Immediate notifications and follow-up reports. Available at http://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/Wahidhome/Home (accessed July 31, 2014).
137. Xu, X., K. Subbarao, N. J. Cox, and Y. Guo, 1999: Genetic characterization of the pathogenic influenza A/Goose/Guangdong/1/96 (H5N1) virus: similarity of its hemagglutinin gene to those of H5N1 viruses from the 1997 outbreaks in Hong Kong. Virology 261, 15–19.
138. Xu, L., Y. Yao, Q. Lv, J. Yuan, F. Li, L. Bao, P. Yu, and C. Qin, 2013: Complete Genome Sequence of an H9N2 Avian Influenza Virus Isolated from Fringilla montifringilla Brambling in Northern China. Available at http://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/M1GN45 (accessed January 6, 2015).
139. Yang, Y., M. Halloran, J. Sugimoto, and I. Longini, 2007a: Detecting Human-to-Human Transmission of Avian Influenza A (H5N1). Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13, 1348–1353.
140. Yang, Y., M. E. Halloran, J. D. Sugimoto, and I. M. Jr Longini, 2007b: Detecting human-to-human transmission of avian influenza A (H5N1). Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13, 1348–1353.
141. Yu, H., J. T. Wu, B. J. Cowling, Q. Liao, V. J. Fang, S. Zhou, P. Wu, H. Zhou, E. H. Y. Lau, D. Guo, M. Y. Ni, Z. Peng, L. Feng, H. Jiang, H. Luo, Q. Li, Z. Feng, Y. Wang, W. Yang, and G. M. Leung, 2014a: Effect of closure of live poultry markets on poultry-to-person transmission of avian influenza A H7N9 virus: an ecological study. Lancet 383, 541–548.
142. Yu, X., T. Jin, Y. Cui, X. Pu, J. Li, J. Xu, G. Liu, H. Jia, D. Liu, S. Song, Y. Yu, L. Xie, R. Huang, H. Ding, Y. Kou, Y. Zhou, Y. Wang, X. Xu, Y. Yin, J. Wang, C. Guo, X. Yang, L. Hu, X. Wu, H. Wang, J. Liu, G. Zhao, J. Zhou, J. Pan, G. F. Gao, R. Yang, and J. Wang, 2014b: Influenza H7N9 and H9N2 viruses: coexistence in poultry linked to human H7N9 infection and genome characteristics. J. Virol. 88, 3423–3431.
143. Zeng, X., W. Mai, B. Shu, L. Yi, J. Lu, T. Song, H. Zhong, H. Xiao, D. Guan, J. Wu, L. Liang, C. Monagin, X. Zhang, and C. Ke, 2014: Mild Influenza A/H7N9 Infection among Children in Guangdong Province. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 34, 104–107.
144. Zhang, L., Z. Zhang, and Z. Weng, 2013: Rapid reassortment of internal genes in avian influenza A(H7N9) virus. Clin. Infect. Dis. 57, 1059–1061.
145. Zhao, Z. M., K. F. Shortridge, M. Garcia, Y. Guan, and X. F. Wan, 2008: Genotypic diversity of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. J. Gen. Virol. 89, 2182–2193.
146. Zhao, B., L. Yang, D. Wang, Y. Shu, F. Wu, X. Zhang, W. Zhu, Z. Teng, X. Yu, Y. Gao, D. Wu, E. Pei, and Z. Yuan, 2014: Novel Avian Influenza A(H7N9) virus in Tree Sparrow, Shanghai, China, 2013. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 20, 850.
147. Zhu, Q., H. Yang, W. Chen, W. Cao, G. Zhong, P. Jiao, G. Deng, K. Yu, C. Yang, Z. Bu, Y. Kawaoka, and H. Chen, 2008: A naturally occurring deletion in its NS gene contributes to the attenuation of an H5N1 swine influenza virus in chickens. J. Virol. 82, 220–228.
148. Zhuang, Q., S. Wang, M. Wu, S. Liu, W. Jiang, G. Hou, J. Li, K. Wang, J. Yu, J. Chen, and J. Chen, 2013: Epidemiological and risk analysis of the H7N9 subtype influenza outbreak in China at its early stage. Chin. Sci. Bull. 58, 3183–3187.
149. Zou, S., J. Guo, R. Gao, L. Dong, J. Zhou, Y. Zhang, J. Dong, H. Bo, K. Qin, and Y. Shu, 2013: Inactivation of the novel avian influenza A (H7N9) virus under physical conditions or chemical agents treatment. Virol. J. 10, 289.