Death, Dying, and Organ Transplantation: Reconstructing Medical Ethics at the End of Life

Death, Dying, and Organ Transplantation: Reconstructing Medical Ethics at the End of Life

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 1-208

  Miller, Franklin G ^b   Truog, Robert D ^a  

^a HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

Causing death; Determination of death; End of life; Medical ethics; Organ donation

Indexed keywords

EID: 84922337200     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199739172.001.0001     Document Type: Book

References (238)

1. Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to Examine the Definition of Brain Death. 1968. A definition of irreversible coma. Journal of the American Medical Association 205: 337-340.
2. Alicke, M. D. 1992. Culpable causation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63: 368-378.
3. Arras, J. D. 1998. Physician-assisted suicide: A tragic choice. In: M. P. Battin, R. Rhodes, and A. Silvers, Eds., Physician Assisted Suicide: Expanding the Debate. New York:Routledge: 279-300.
4. Arras, J. D. 2001. A method in search of a purpose: The internal morality of medicine. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 26: 643-662.
5. Baier, A. C. 1994. Moral Prejudice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
6. Barnard, C. N. 1967. The operation: A human cardiac transplant: An interim report of a successful operation performed at Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town. South African Medical Journal 41: 1271-1274.
7. Barnard, C. N. 1987. Reflections on the first heart transplant. South African Medical Journal 72 (December 5): 19.
8. Bartlett, R. H. 2009. ECMO Conference. Keystone, Colorado, February 2009.
9. Beauchamp, T. L. 1999. The failure of theories of personhood. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 9: 309-324.
10. Beauchamp, T. L., and J. F. Childress. 2009. Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 6th ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
11. Bentham, J. 1838/1977. Preface for the Second Edition to A Comment on the Commentaries and a Fragment of Government (J.H. Burns and H.L.A. Hart, eds. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1977, first published in 1838), 509.
12. Beresford, H. R. 1999. Brain death. Neurology Clinics 17(2): 295.
13. Bergelson, V. 2010. Consent to Harm. In: F. G. Miller and A. Wertheimer, Eds., The Ethics of Consent: Theory and Practice. New York: Oxford University Press: 163-192.
14. Bernat, J. L. 1992. How much of the brain must die in brain death? Journal of Clinical Ethics 3: 21-26.
15. Bernat, J. L. 1998. A defense of the whole-brain concept of death. Hastings Center Report 28(2): 14-23.
16. Bernat, J. L. 2006a. The whole-brain concept of death remains optimum public policy. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 34(1): 35-43.
17. Bernat, J. L. 2006b. Are organ donors after cardiac death really dead? Journal of Clinical Ethics 17(2): 122-132.
18. Bernat, J. L. 2006c. Chronic disorder of consciousness. Lancet 367: 1181-1192.
19. Bernat, J. L. 2010a. Are donors after circulatory death really dead and does it matter? Yes and Yes. Chest 138: 13-16.
20. Bernat, J. L. 2010b. How the distinction between "irreversible" and "permanent" illuminates circulatory-respiratory death determination. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 35(June): 242-255.
21. Bernat, J. L., C. M. Culver, and B. Gert. 1981. On the definition and criterion of death. Annals of Internal Medicine 94: 389-394.
22. Bernat, J. L., A. M. D'Alessandro, F. K. Port, et al. 2006. Report of a National Conference on Donation after cardiac death. American Journal of Transplantation 6(2): 281-291.
23. Bernat, J. L., A. M. Capron, T. P. Bleck, et al. 2010. The circulatory-respiratory determination of death in organ donation. Critical Care Medicine 38(3): 963-970.
24. Bernstein, R. J. 2010. The Pragmatic Turn. Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press.
25. Betzold, M. 1993. Appointment with Doctor Death. Troy, MI: Momentum Books.
26. Bickenbach, J. E. 1998. Disability and life-ending decisions. In: M. P. Battin, R. Rhodes, and A. Silvers, Eds., Physician Assisted Suicide: Expanding the Debate. New York: Routledge: 123-132.
27. Bix, B. H. 2009. Law and language: How words mislead us. Reappointment Lecture to the Frederick W. Thomas Chair, University of Minnesota (April 7, 2009), available at.
28. Bosshard, G., et al. 2006. Intentionally hastening death by withholding or withdrawing treatment. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 118: 322-326.
29. Boucek, M. M., C. Mashburn, S. M. Dunn, et al. 2008. Pediatric heart transplantation after declaration of cardiocirculatory death. New England Journal of Medicine 359(7): 709-714.
30. Brilli, R. J., and D. Bigos. 2000. Apnea threshold and pediatric brain death. Critical Care Medicine 28: 1257.
31. Brock, D. W. 1992. Voluntary active euthanasia. Hastings Center Report 22(2): 10-22.
32. Brock, D. W. 1993. Life and Death. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
33. Brock, D. W. 1999. The role of the public in public policy on the definition of death. In: S. J. Youngner, R. M. Arnold, and R. Schapiro, Eds., The Definition of Death. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press: 293-307.
34. Brody, B. 1996. Withdrawal of treatment versus killing of patients. In: T. L. Beauchamp, Ed., Intending Death: The Ethics of Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall: 90-103.
35. Brody, H. 1981. Ethical Dimensions in Medicine. Boston: Little, Brown.
36. Brubaker, R. 2005. Taking exception to the new corporate discharge exceptions. 13 American Bankrupcy Institute Law Review 757.
37. Bryne, P.A., S. Oreilly, et al. 1979. Brain death-an opposing viewpoint. Journal of the American Medical Association 242: 1985-1990.
38. Callahan, D. 1992. When self-determination runs amok. Hastings Center Report 22(2): 52-55.
39. Callahan, D. 1993. The Troubled Dream of Life. New York: Simon & Schuster.
40. Callahan, D. 1996. The goals of medicine: Setting new priorities. Hastings Center Report 25(6): S1-S26.
41. Capron, A. M. 1999. The bifurcated legal standard for determining death: Does it work? In: S. J. Youngner, R. M. Arnold, and R. Schapiro, Eds., The Definition of Death. Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins Press: 117-136.
42. Capron, A. M. 2001. Brain death-well settled yet still unresolved. New England Journal of Medicine 344: 1244-1246.
43. Charo, A R. 1999. Dusk, dawn, and defining death: Legal classifications and biological categories. In: S. J. Youngner, R. M. Arnold, and R. Schapiro, Eds., The Definition of Death. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press: 277-292.
44. Chervenak, F. A., and L. B. McCullough. 2006. Why the Groningen Protocol should be rejected. Hastings Center Report 36(5): 30-33.
45. CNN Wire Staff. 2010. Lou Gehrig's victim: Kill me for my organs., accessed 7/30/09.
46. Collaborative Study. 1977. An appraisal of the criteria of cerebral death, a summary statement: A collaborative study. Journal of the American Medical Association 237: 982-986.
47. Collins, T., and L. Leff. 2009. Wounded Oakland officer brain-dead. The Washington Post, March 23, 2009: A4.
48. Combs v. Int'l Ins. Co. 2004. 354 F. 3d 568, 599 (6th Cir. Ky.).
49. Dagi, T. F. 1992. Commentary on "How much of the brain must dies in brain death?" Journal of Clinical Ethics 3: 27-28.
50. Dalgleish, D. 2000. Brain stem death: Healthcare workers have difficulty accepting current management. British Medical Journal 321: 635.
51. Damasio, A. 2010. Self Comes to Mind. New York: Pantheon Books.
52. de Groot, Y. J., and E. J. Kompanje. 2010. Dead donor rule and organ procurement. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine 11(2): 314-315.
53. DeVita, M. A. 2001. The death watch: Certifying death using cardiac criteria. Progress in Transplantation 11(1): 58-66.
54. DeVita, M. A., and J. V. Snyder. 1993. Development of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Policy for the care of terminally ill patients who may become organ donors after death following the removal of life support. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 3: 131-143.
55. DeVita, M. A., J. V. Snyder, R. M. Arnold, and L. A. Siminoff. 2000. Observations of withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment from patients who became non-heart-beating organ donors. Critical Care Medicine 28(6): 1709-1712.
56. Diflo, T. 2004. Use of organs from executed Chinese prisoners. Lancet 364: 30-31.
57. Dosemeci, L., M Cengiz, et al. 2004. Frequency of spinal reflex movements in brain dead patients. Transplantation Proceedings 36(1): 17-19.
58. Douglas, C., I. Kerridge, and R. Ankeny. 2008. Managing intentions: The end-of-life administration of analgesics and sedatives, and the possibility of slow euthanasia. Bioethics 22: 388-396.
59. Dubois, J. M., and T. Schmidt 2003. Does the public support organ donation using higher brain-death criteria? Journal of Clinical Ethics 14(1-2): 26.
60. Dumit, J. 2004. Picturing Personhood: Brain Scans and Biomedical Identity. Princeton:Princeton University Press.
61. Dworkin, G. 2002. Patients and prisoners: The ethics of lethal injection. Analysis 62: 181-189.
62. Dworkin, R. 1993. Life's Dominion. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
63. Dworkin, R. 2010. NYRblog, "The Devastating Decision," available at.
64. Eddy, D. M. 1994. A piece of my mind. A conversation with my mother. Journal of the American Medical Association 272: 179-181.
65. Emanuel, E. J. 1999. What is the great benefit of legalizing euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide? Ethics 109: 629-642.
66. Engelhardt, H. T. 1975. Defining death: A philosophical problem for medicine and law. American Review of Respiratory Disease 112: 587-590.
67. Englehardt, H. T. 1986. The Foundations of Bioethics. New York: Oxford University Press.
68. Fabre, C. 2006. Whose Body Is It Anyway? Oxford: Oxford University Press.
69. Fackler, J. C., and R. D. Truog. 1987. Is brain death really cessation of all intracranial function? Journal Pediatrics 110: 84-86.
70. Faden, R. R., and T. L. Beauchamp. 1986. A History and Theory of Informed Consent. New York: Oxford University Press.
71. Feinberg, J. 1984. Harm to Others. New York: Oxford University Press.
72. Feinberg, J. 1986. Harm to Self. New York: Oxford University Press.
73. Feldman, F. 1992. Confrontations with the Reaper: A Philosophical Study of the Nature and Value of Death. New York: Oxford University Press.
74. Festinger, L., and J. M. Carlsmith. 1959. Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 58: 203-211.
75. Foot, P. 1994. Killing and allowing to die. In: B. Steinbock and A. Norcross, Eds., Killing and Letting Die, 2nd ed. New York: Fordham University Press: 280-289.
76. Frank, J. 1973. Courts on Trial: Myth and Reality in American Justice. Princeton:Princeton University Press: 147.
77. Friedlander, H. 1995. The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
78. Fuller, L. 1967. Legal Fictions. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
79. Gay, P. 1988. Freud. New York: Norton.
80. Gaylin, W., L. R. Kass, E. D. Pellegrino, and M. Siegler. 1988. Doctors must not kill. Journal of the American Medical Association 259: 2139-2140.
81. Gert, B., J. L. Bernat, and R. P. Mogielnicki. 1994. Distinguishing between patients' refusals and requests. Hastings Center Report 24(4): 13-15.
82. Gervais, K. G. 1986. Redefining Death. New Haven: Yale University Press.
83. Glannon, W. 2007. Bioethics and the Brain. New York: Oxford University Press.
84. Gravel, M. T., J. D. Arenas, R. Chenault, 2nd, et al. 2004. Kidney transplantation from organ donors following cardiopulmonary death using extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support. Annals of Transplantation 9(1): 57-58.
85. Green, M. B. and D. Wikler. 1980. Brain death and personal identity. Philosophy and Public Affairs 9: 105-133.
86. Greenberg, G. 2001. As good as dead. New Yorker. August 13, 2001.
87. Greene, J. 2009. Fruit flies of the moral mind. In: M. Brockman, Ed., What's Next? Dispatches on the Future of Science. New York: Vintage Books. 104-115.
88. Guidelines for the Determination of Death. 1981. Report of the medical consultants on the diagnosis of death to the President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Journal of the American Medical Association 246: 2184-2186.
89. Halevy, A., and B. Brody. 1993. Brain death: Reconciling definitions, criteria, and tests. Annals of Internal Medicine 119: 519-525.
90. Hall, M., F. F. Trachtenberg, and E. Dugan. 2005. The impact of patient trust on legalizing physician aid in dying. Journal of Medical Ethics 31: 693-697.
91. Harmon, L. 1990. Falling off the vine: Legal fictions and the doctrine of substituted judgment. 100 Yale Law Journal 1.
92. Hart, H. L. A., and T. Honore. 1985. Causation in the Law, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
93. Hershenov, D. B., and J. J. Delaney. 2009. Mandatory autopsies and organ conscription. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 19: 367-391.
94. Hornby, K., L. Hornby, and S. D. Shemie. 2010. A systematic review of autoresuscitation after cardiac arrest. Critical Care Medicine 38(5): 1246-1253.
95. Huxtable, R., and M. Moller. 2007. "Setting a principled boundary"? Euthanasia as a response to "life fatigue." Bioethics 21: 117-126.
96. Institute of Medicine. 2000. Non-Heart-Beating Organ Transplantation: Practice and Protocols. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
97. Jonas, H. 1970. Philosophical reflections on experimenting with human subjects. In:Freund PA, ed. Experimentation with Human Subjects . New York: George Braziller: 1-31.
98. Jonas, H. 1974. Against the stream: Comments on the definition and redefinition of death. In: H. Jonas. Philosophical Essays. Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 132-140.
99. Jonsen, A. R. 1989. Ethical issues in organ transplantation. In: R. M. Veatch, Ed., Medical Ethics. Boston: Jones and Bartlett: 229-252.
100. Kamm, F. M. 1996. Morality, Mortality, Volume II. New York: Oxford University Press.
101. Kass, L. R. 1985. Toward a More Natural Science. New York: Free Press.
102. Kass, L. R. 1989. Neither for love nor money: Why doctors must not kill. The Public Interest 94: 25-46.
103. Kato, T., A. Tokumaru, et al. 1991. Assessment of brain death in children by means of P-31 MR spectroscopy: Preliminary note. Work in progress [see comments]. Radiology 179: 95-99.
104. Keep, P. J. 2000. Anaesthesia for organ donation in the brainstem dead. Anaesthesia 55(6): 590.
105. Khushf, G. 2010. A matter of respect: A defense of the dead donor rule and of "wholebrain" criterion for determination of death. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 35: 330-364.
106. King, L. 2005. CNN LARRY KING LIVE: Interview with Jason, Justin Torres.
107. Kleinig, J. 2010. The nature of Consent. In: F. G. Miller and A. Wertheimer, The Ethics of Consent: Theory and Practice. New York: Oxford University Press: 3-24.
108. Korein, J. 1978. The problem of brain death: Development and history. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 315: 19-38.
109. Kunin, J. 2004. Brain death: Revisiting rabbinic opinions in light of current knowledge. Tradition 38(4): 48-62.
110. Lagnado, D. A., and S. Channon 2008. Judgments of cause and blame: The effects of intentionality and foreseeability. Cognition 108: 754-770.
111. Lane, A., A. Westbrook, et al. 2004. Maternal brain death: Medical, ethical and legal issues. Intensive Care Medicine 30(3-4): 1484-1486.
112. Larkin, P. 1977. Aubade. In: A. Thwaite, Ed., Philip Larkin. Collected Poems. New York:Farrar Strauss Giroux, 1988: 208.
113. Lindemann, H., and M. Verkerk. 2008. Ending the life of a newborn: The Groningen Protocol. Hastings Center Report 38(1): 42-51.
114. Lizza, J. P. 2006. Persons, Humanity, and the Definition of Death. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
115. Lizza, J. P. 2009a. And she's not only merely dead, she's really most sincerely dead. Hastings Center Report 39(5): 5-6.
116. Lizza, J. P. 2009b. Commentary on "The incoherence of determining death by neurological criteria." Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 19: 393-395.
117. Machado, C., and Korein, J. 2009. Irreversibility: Cardiac death versus brain death. Reviews in the Neurosciences 20(3-4): 199-292.
118. Macklem, P. T., and A. Seely. 2010. Towards a definition of life. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 53: 330-340.
119. Magliocca, J. F., J. C. Magee, S. A. Rowe, et al. 2005. Extracorporeal support for organ donation after cardiac death effectively expands the donor pool. Journal of Trauma 58(6): 1095-1101; discussion 1101-1102.
120. Marcus, R. 2010. The high court's shoddy scholarship. Washington Post, January 23, 2010, at A13.
121. Marquis, D. 2010. Are DCD donors dead? Hastings Center Report 40(3): 24-31.
122. Matta, B. 2000. The implications of anaesthetising the brainstem dead: 2--Reply. Anaesthesia 55(7): 695-696.
123. McIntyre, A. 2009. Doctrine of Double Effect. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy., accessed 11/4/09.
124. McMahan, J. 2002. The Ethics of Killing. New York: Oxford University Press.
125. Medical Royal Colleges and Their Faculties in the United Kingdom. 1976. Diagnosis of brain death. Statement issued by the honorary secretary of the Conference of Medical Royal Colleges and Their Faculties in the United Kingdom on 11 October 1976. British Medical Journal 2: 1187-1188.
126. Merker B. 2007. Consciousness without a cerebral cortex: A challenge for neuroscience and medicine. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 30: 63-81.
127. Mill, J. S. 1859. On liberty. In: J. S. Mill, Utilitarianism, Liberty and Representative Government. Everyman Library. London: J.M. Dent, 1971.
128. Miller, F. G. 1991. Is active killing of patients always wrong? Journal of Clinical Ethics 2: 130-132.
129. Miller, F. G. 2009a. A planned death in the family. Hastings Center Report 39(2): 28-30.
130. Miller, F. G. 2009b. Death and organ donation: Back to the future. Journal of Medical Ethics 35: 616-620.
131. Miller, F. G., and H. Brody. 1995. Professional integrity and physician-assisted death. Hastings Center Report 25(3): 8-17.
132. Miller, F. G, and H. Brody. 2001. The internal morality of medicine: An evolutionary perspective. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 26: 581-599.
133. Miller, F. G., and H. Brody. 2003. A critique of clinical equipoise: Therapeutic misconception in the ethics of clinical trials. Hastings Center Report 33(3): 19-28.
134. Miller, F. G., and D. L. Rosenstein. 2003. The therapeutic orientation to clinical trials. New England Journal of Medicine 348: 1383-1386.
135. Miller, F. G., and A. Wertheimer. 2010. Preface to a theory of consent transactions:Beyond valid consent. In: F. G. Miller and A. Wertheimer. Eds., The Ethics of Consent:Theory and Practice. New York: Oxford University Press: 79-105.
136. Miller, F. G., et al. 1994. Regulating physician-assisted death. New England Journal of Medicine 331: 119-123.
137. Miller, F. G., and Truog, R. D. 2008. Rethinking the ethics of vital organ donations. Hastings Center Report 38(6): 38-46.
138. Miller, F. G., and Truog, R. D. 2009. The incoherence of determining death by neurological criteria: Commentary on Controversies in the Determination of Death, A White Paper by the President's Council on Bioethics. Kennedy Institutes of Ethics Journal 19: 185-93.
139. Miller, F. G., and Truog, R. D. 2010. Decapitation and the definition of death. Journal of Medical Ethics 36: 632-634.
140. Miller, F. G., Truog, R. D., and Brock, D. W. 2010a. Moral fictions and medical ethics. Bioethics 24: 453-460.
141. Miller, F. G., Truog, R. D., and Brock, D. W. 2010b. The dead donor rule: can it withstand critical scrutiny? Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 35: 299-312.
142. Molinari, G. F., U. S. Department of Health, et al. 1980. The NINCDS Collaborative Study of Brain Death: A historical perspective. NINCDS Monograph No. 24. NIH publication No. 81-2286: 1-32.
143. Mollaret, P., and M. Goulon. 1959. Le coma depasse. Revue Neurologie 101: 3-15.
144. Monti, M. M., M. R. Coleman, and A. M. Owen. 2009. Neuroimaging and the vegetative state: Resolving the behavioral assessment dilemma? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1157: 81-89.
145. Monti, M. M., A. Vanhaudenhuyse, et al. 2010. Willful modulation of brain activity in disorders of consciousness. New England Journal of Medicine 362: 579-589.
146. Morray, J. P., E. J. Krane, et al. 1987. Brain death? Pediatrics 79: 1057.
147. Munsell, M. G. 1997. The declaratory judgment act's actual controversy requirement:Should a patent owner's promise not to sue deprive the court of jurisdiction? Super Sack Manufacturing Corp. v. Chase Packaging Corp. 1, 62 Mo. Law Review 573: 580-582.
148. Nachev, P., and P. M. S. Hacker. 2010. Covert cognition in the persistent vegetative state. Progress in Neurobiology 91: 68-76.
149. Nelson, J. 2009. Dealing death and retrieving organs. Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 6: 285-291.
150. Noe, A. 2009. Out of Our Heads. New York: Hill and Wang.
151. Okie S. 2005. Physician-assisted suicide-Oregon and beyond. New England Journal of Medicine 352: 1627-1630.
152. Olick, R. S. 1991. Brain death, religious freedom, and public policy: New Jersey's landmark legislative initiative. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1: 275-288.
153. Olick, R. S., Braun, E. A., and J. Potash. 2009. Accommodating religious and moral objections to neurological death. Journal of Clinical Ethics 20(2): 183-191.
154. Outka, G. 2002. The ethics of human cell research. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 12: 175-213.
155. Owen, A. M., M. R. Coleman, M. Boly, et al. 2006. Detecting awareness in the vegetative state. Science 313: 1402.
156. Panksepp, J., T. Fuchs, V. A. Garcia, and A. Lesiak. 2007. Does any aspect of mind survive brain damage that typically leads to a persistent vegetative state? Ethical considerations. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine 2: 32.
157. Patterson, D. R., et al. 1993. When life support is questioned early in the care of patients with cervical-level quadriplegia. New England Journal of Medicine 328: 506-509.
158. Pence, G. E. 1995. Classic Cases in Medical Ethics, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill: 3-33.
159. Pernick, M. S. 1988. Back from the grave: Recurring controversies over defining and diagnosing death in history. In: R. M. Zaner. Ed., Death: Beyond Whole-Brain Criteria. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers: 17-74.
160. Plum, F., and J. B. Posner. 2007. The Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma, 4th ed. New York:Oxford University Press.
161. Pope Pius XII. 1957a. The prolongation of life. The Pope Speaks: 393, 396.
162. Pope Pius XII. 1957b. Address to an international congress of anesthesiologists. Accessed 11/5/09.
163. Poulton, B., and M. Garfield. 2000. The implications of anaesthetising the brainstem dead:1. Anaesthesia 55(7): 695.
164. Powner, D. J., and I. M. Bernstein. 2003. Extended somatic support for pregnant women after brain death. Critical Care Medicine 31: 1241-1249.
165. President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Biomedical Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research. 1981. Defining Death: A Report on the Medical, Legal, and Ethical Issues in the Determination of Death . Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
166. President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research. 1983. Deciding to Forego Life-Sustaining Treatment. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
167. President's Council on Bioethics. 2008. Controversies in the Determination of Death. Washington, D.C.
168. Proctor, R. N. 1988. Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press.
169. Que, C. L., C. M. Kenyon R. Olivenstein, et al. 2001. Homeokinesis and short-term variability of human airway caliber. Journal of Applied Physiology 91: 1131-1141.
170. Quill, T. E. 1993. The ambiguity of clinical intentions. New England Journal of Medicine 329: 1039-1040.
171. Quill, T. E., et al. 2009. Last-resort options for palliative sedation. Annals of Internal Medicine 151: 421-424.
172. Ravitsky V. 2005. Timers on ventilators. BMJ 330: 415-417.
173. Reiser, S. J. 1993. Science, pedagogy, and the transformation of empathy in medicine. In:H. M. Spiro et al., Eds., Empathy and the Practice of Medicine. New Haven: Yale University Press: 121-134.
174. Repertinger, S., W. P. Fitzgibbons, et al. 2006. Long survival following bacterial meningitisassociated brain destruction. Journal of Child Neurology 21(7): 591-595.
175. Rich, B. A. 1997. Postmodern personhood: A matter of consciousness. Bioethics 11: 206-216.
176. Rietjens, J. A. C., et al. 2007. Using drugs to end life without an explicit request of the patient. Death Studies 31: 205-221.
177. Rietjens, J. A. C., et al. 2009. Two decades of research on euthanasia from the Netherlands: What have we learnt and what questions remain? Bioethical Inquiry 6: 271-283.
178. Robertson, J. 1999. The dead donor rule. Hastings Center Report 29(6): 6-14.
179. Rodin, E., S. Tahir, et al. 1985. Brainstem death. Clinical Electroencephalography 16: 63-71.
180. Rosen, J. Roberts versus Roberts. New Republic, March 11, 2010: 17.
181. Rosner, F. 1999. The definition of death in Jewish law. In: S. J. Youngner, R.M. Arnold, and R. Schapiro. Eds., The Definition of Death. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press: 210-221.
182. Sanchez-Fructuouso, A. L., et al. 2006. Victims of cardiac arrest occurring outside the hospital: A source of transplantable kidneys. Annals of Internal Medicine 145: 157-164.
183. Sanghavi, D. 2009. When does death start? New York Times Magazine, December 20, 2009.
184. Sass, H. M. 1992. Criteria for death: Self-determination and public policy. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 17: 445-454.
185. Schmidt, T. C. 2004. The Ohio study in light of national data and clinical experience. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 14: 235-240.
186. Segev, D. L., A. D. Muzaale, B. S. Caffo, et al. 2010. Perioperative mortality and long-term survival following live kidney donation. Journal of the American Medical Association 303: 959-966.
187. Shah S. K., and F. G. Miller. 2010. Can we handle the truth? Legal fictions in the determination of death. American Journal of Law & Medicine 36: 540-585.
188. Shewmon, D. A. 1987. The probability of inevitability: The inherent impossibility of validating criteria for brain death or "irreversibility" through clinical studies. Statistics in Medicine 6: 535-553.
189. Shewmon, D.A. 1997. Recovery from "brain death": A neurologist's apologia. Linacre Quarterly 64(1): 30-96.
190. Shewmon, D. A. 1998. Chronic "brain death"-Meta-analysis and conceptual consequences. Neurology 51(6): 1538-1545.
191. Shewmon, D. A. 1999. Spinal shock and brain death: Somatic pathophysiological equivalence and implications for the integrative-unity rationale. Spinal Cord 37(5): 313-324.
192. Shewmon, D. A. 2001. The brain and somatic integration: Insights into the standard biological rationale for equating "brain death" with death. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 26: 457-478.
193. Shewmon, D. A. 2004. The "critical organ" for the organism as a whole: Lessons from the lowly spinal cord. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 550: 23-41.
194. Shewmon, D. A. 2009. Brain death: Can it be resuscitated? Hastings Center Report 39(2): 18-23.
195. Shewmon, D. A., G. L. Holmes, and P. A. Byrne. 1999. Consciousness in congenitally decorticate children: Developmental vegetative state as self-fulfilling prophecy. Developmental Medcine & Child Neurology 41: 364-374.
196. Siminoff, L. A., C. Burant, and S. J.Youngner. 2004. Death and organ procurement: Public beliefs and attitudes. Social Science & Medicine 59: 2325-2334.
197. Singer, P. 1993. Practice Ethics, 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press.
198. Singer, P. 2003. Voluntary euthanasia: A utilitarian perspective. Bioethics 17: 526-541.
199. Sprung, C. L., D. Ledoux, H. H. Bulow, et al. 2008. Relieving suffering or intentionally hastening death: Where do you draw the line? Critical Care Medicine 36: 8-13.
200. Stein, R. 2010. Project to get transplant organs from ER patients raises ethical questions. New York Times March 15, 2010: A1.
201. Steinberg, A,and M. Hersch. 1995. Decapitation of a pregnant sheep: A contribution to the brain death controversy. Transplantation Proceedings 27: 1886-1887.
202. Steinbock, B., and A. Norcross. 1994. Killing and Letting Die, 2nd ed. New York:Fordham University Press.
203. Steinbrook, R. 2007. Organ donation after cardiac death. New England Journal of Medicine 357(3): 209-213.
204. Stevens, M. L. T. 2000. Bioethics in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
205. Strung, C. L., et al. 2008. Relieving suffering or intentionally hastening death: Where do you draw the line? Critical Care Medicine 36: 8-13.
206. Supreme Court of New Jersey. 1976. In the matter of Karen Quinlan. In: B. Steinbock and A. Norcross, 1994. Killing and Letting Die, 2nd ed. New York: Fordham University Press: 51-78.
207. Tauber, A.I. 2009. Science and the Quest for Meaning. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press.
208. Tavris, C., and E. Aronson. 2007. Mistakes Were Made: (But Not by Me). Orlando, FL:Harcourt, Brace: 13-20.
209. Truog, R. D. 1997. Is it time to abandon brain death? Hastings Center Report 27(1): 29-37.
210. Truog, R. D. 2007. Brain death-too flawed to endure, too ingrained to abandon. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 35: 273-281.
211. Truog, R. D., and J. C. Fackler. 1992. Rethinking brain death. Critical Care Medicine 20: 1705-1713.
212. Truog, R. D., and W. M. Robinson. 2003. Role of brain death and the dead-donor rule in the ethics of organ transplantation. Critical Care Medicine 31: 2391-2396.
213. Truog, R. D. and F. G. Miller. 2008. The dead donor rule and organ donation. New England Journal of Medicine 359: 674-675.
214. Truog, R. D., and F. G. Miller. 2010. Counterpoint: Are donors after circulatory death really dead, and does it matter? No and not really. Chest 138: 16-18.
215. Truog, R. D., et al. 2001. Recommendations for end-of-life care in the intensive care unit:The ethics committee of the Society of Critical Care Medicine. Critical Care Medicine 29: 2332-2348.
216. Truog, R. D., M. L. Campbell, J. R. Curtis, et al. 2008. Recommendations for end-of-life care in the intensive care unit: A consensus by the American College of Critical Care Medicine. Critical Care Medicine 36: 953-963.
217. University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. 1993. Policy and Procedure Manual:Management of terminally ill patients who may become organ donors after death. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 3: A1-A15.
218. UNOS. 2010. Available from.
219. Vacco v. Quill. 1997. In: M. P. Battin, R. Rhodes, and A. Silvers, Eds., 1998. Physician Assisted Suicide: Expanding the Debate. New York: Routledge.
220. van der Maas, P., and L. E. Emanuel. 1998. Factual findings. In: L. Emanuel, Ed., Regulating How We Die. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press: 151-174.
221. van der Maas, P. J., L. Pijnenborg, and J. J. van Delden. 1995. Changes in Dutch opinions on active euthanasia, 1966 through 1991. Journal of the American Medical Association 273: 1411-1414.
222. Vardis, R., and M. M. Pollack. 1998. Increased apnea threshold in a pediatric patient with suspected brain death. Critical Care Medicine 26: 1917-1919.
223. Veatch, R. M. 1975. The whole-brain oriented concept of death: An outmoded philosophical formulation. Journal of Thanatology 3: 13-30.
224. Veatch, R. M. 1992. Brain death and slippery slopes. Journal of Clinical Ethics 3: 181-187.
225. Veatch, R. M. 2008. Donating hearts after cardiac death-reversing the irreversible. New England Journal of Medicine 369: 672-673.
226. Veatch, R. M. 2010. Transplanting hearts after death measured by cardiac criteria: The challenge to the dead donor rule. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 35(June): 313-329.
227. Velmans, M. 2009. Understanding Consciousness, 2nd ed. New York: Routledge.
228. Wang, M., and X. Wang. 2010. Organ donation by capital prisoners in China: Reflections on Confucian ethics. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 35: 197-2010.
229. Wertheimer, A. 1996. Exploitation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
230. Wijdicks, E. F. M. 2002. Brain death worldwide-accepted fact but no global consensus in diagnostic criteria. Neurology 58(1): 20-25.
231. Wijdicks, E. F., and E. A. Pfeifer. 2008. Neuropathology of brain death in the modern transplant era. Neurology 70: 1234-1237.
232. Wikler, D. I. 1984. Conceptual issues in the definition of death: A guide for public policy. Theoretical Medicine 5: 167-180.
233. Wikler, D., and A. J. Weisbard. 1989. Appropriate confusion over "brain death." Journal of the American Medical Association 261: 2246.
234. Young, P. J., and B. F. Matta. 2000. Anaesthesia for organ donation in the brainstem dead -why bother? Anaesthesia 55: 105-106.
235. Youngner, S. J., and E. T. Bartlett. 1983. Human death and high technology: The failure of the whole-brain formulations. Annals of Internal Medicine 99: 252-258.
236. Youngner, S. J., C. S. Landefeld, et al. 1989. "Brain death" and organ retrieval. A crosssectional survey of knowledge and concepts among health professionals. Journal of the American Medical Association 261: 2205-2210.
237. Ysebaert, D., G. V. Beeumen, K. De Greef, et al. 2009. Organ procurement after euthanasia: Belgian experience. Transplantation Proceedings 41: 585-586.
238. Zussman, R. 1992. Intensive Care: Medical Ethics and the Medical Profession. Chicago:University of Chicago Press.