The "critical organ" for the organism as a whole: Lessons from the lowly spinal cord

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology

Volumn 550, Issue , 2004, Pages 23-41

  Shewmon, D Alan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BRAIN DEATH; CONCEPT FORMATION; CONFERENCE PAPER; CONSCIOUSNESS; HUMAN; LOGIC; NEUROMODULATION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SPINAL CORD INJURY; THEORY;

EID: 1842555085     PISSN: 00652598     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-0-306-48526-8_3     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (100)

1. Byrne PA, O'Reilly S, Quay PM. Brain death - an opposing viewpoint. JAMA 1979;242:1985-1990.
2. Byrne PA, O'Reilly S, Quay PM, Salsich PW, Jr. Brain death - the patient, the physician, and society. Gonzaga Law Rev 1982/83;18:429-516.
3. Swedish Committee on Defining Death. The concept of death. Summary. Stockholm: Swedish Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, 1984.
4. President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Defining Death: Medical, Legal, and Ethical Issues in the Determination of Death. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981.
5. Bernat JL. The definition, criterion, and statute of death. Semin Neurol 1984;4:45-51.
6. Bernat JL. Ethical Issues in Neurology. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1994.
7. Korein J. The problem of brain death: development and history. Ann NY Acad Sci 1978;315:19-38.
8. White RJ, Angstwurm H, Carrasco de Paula I. Final considerations formulated by the scientific participants. In: White RJ, Angstwurm H, Carrasco de Paula I, eds. Working Group on the Determination of Brain Death and its Relationship to Human Death. 10-14 December, 1989. (Scripta Varia 83). Vatican City: Pontifical Academy of Sciences, 1992:81-82.
9. Bernat JL. A defense of the whole-brain concept of death. Hastings Cent Rep 1998;28:14-23.
10. Gert B. A complete definition of death. In: Machado C, ed. Brain Death. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Brain Death. Havana, Cuba, February 27-March 1, 1996. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1995:23-30.
11. Pallis C. Whole-brain death reconsidered - physiological facts and philosophy. J Med Ethics 1983;9:32-37.
12. Conference of Medical Royal Colleges and their Faculties in the United Kingdom. Diagnosis of death. Br Med J 1979;1:3320.
13. Lamb D. Death, Brain Death and Ethics. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1985.
14. Guerriero WG. Organ transplantation. In: Narayan RK, Wilberger JEJ, Povlishock JT, eds. Neurotrauma. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996:835-840.
15. Lew TWK, Grenvik A. Brain death, vegetative state, donor management, and cessation of therapy. In: Albin MS, ed. Textbook of Neuroanesthesia with Neurosurgical and Neuroscience Perspectives. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997:1361-1381.
16. Pallis C, Harley DH. ABC of Brainstem Death. London: BMJ Publishing Group, 1996.
17. Shewmon DA. Chronic "brain death": meta-analysis and conceptual consequences. Neurology 1998;51: 1538-1545.
18. Conference of Medical Royal Colleges and their Faculties in the United Kingdom. Diagnosis of brain death. Br Med J 1976;2:1187-1188.
19. Ibe K. Clinical and pathophysiological aspects of the intravital brain death [abstract]. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1971;30:272.
20. Youngner SJ, Bartlett ET. Human death and high technology: the failure of the whole-brain formulations. Ann Intern Med 1983;99:252-258.
21. Gervais KG. Redefining Death. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986.
22. Green MB, Wikler D. Brain death and personal identity. In: Cohen M, Nagel T, Scanlon T, eds. Medicine and Moral Philosophy. A Philosophy and Public Affairs Reader. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982:49-77.
23. Lizza JP. Persons and death: What's metaphysically wrong with our current statutory definition of death? J Med Philos 1993;18:351-374.
24. Machado C. A new definition of death based on the basic mechanisms of consciousness generation in human beings. In: Machado C, ed. Brain Death. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Brain Death. Havana, Cuba, February 27-March 1, 1996. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1995:57-66.
25. Veatch RM. The impending collapse of the whole-brain definition of death [erratum in Hastings Cent Rep 1993;23(6):4]. Hastings Cent Rep 1993;23(4):18-24.
26. Zaner RM. Death: Beyond Whole-Brain Criteria. In: Engelhardt HTJ, Spicker SF, eds. Philosophy and Medicine. Dordrecht/Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1988.
27. Matjasko MJ. Multisystem sequelae of severe head injury. In: Cottrell JE, Smith DS, eds. Anesthesia and Neurosurgery. 3rd ed. St. Louis: Mosby, 1994:685-712.
28. Geisler WO, Jousse AT. Life expectancy following traumatic spinal cord injury. In: Frankel HL, ed. Spinal Cord Trauma. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1992:499-513.
29. Teeple E, Heres EK. Anesthesia management of spinal trauma. In: Narayan RK, Wilberger JE, Jr., Povlishock JT, eds. Neurotrauma. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996:1167-1177.
30. Albin MS. Spinal cord injury. In: Cottrell JE, Smith DS, eds. Anesthesia and Neurosurgery. 3rd ed. St. Louis: Mosby, 1994:713-743.
31. Darby JM, Stein K, Grenvik A, Stuart SA. Approach to management of the heartbeating 'brain dead' organ donor. JAMA 1989;261:2222-2228.
32. Field DR et al. Matemal brain death during pregnancy: medical and ethical issues. JAMA 1988;260:816-822.
33. Kofke WA, Yonas H, Wechsler L. Neurologic intensive care. In: Albin MS, ed. Textbook of Neuroanesthesia with Neurosurgical and Neuroscience Perspectives. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997:1247-1347.
34. Antonini C et al. Morte cerebrale e sopravvivenza fetale prolungata. [Brain death and prolonged fetal survival]. Minerva Anestesiol 1992;58:1247-1252.
35. Novitzky D et al. Pathophysiology of pulmonary edema following experimental brain death in the chacma baboon. Ann Thorac Surg 1987;43:288-294.
36. Novitzky D, Rose AG, Cooper DK. Injury of myocardial conduction tissue and coronary artery smooth muscle following brain death in the baboon. Transplantation 1988;45:964-966.
37. Novitzky D. Heart transplantation, euthyroid sick syndrome, and triiodothyronine replacement. J Heart Lung Transplant 1992;11(4 Pt 2):S196-198.
38. Samuels MA. Cardiopulmonary aspects of acute neurologic diseases. In: Ropper AH, ed. Neurological and Neurosurgical Intensive Care. 3rd ed. New York: Raven Press, 1993:103-119.
39. Yoshida K-I, Ogura Y, Wakasugi C. Myocardial lesions induced after trauma and treatment. Forensic Sci Int 1992;54:181-189.
40. Novitzky D et al. Prevention of myocardial injury during brain death by total cardiac sympathectomy in the Chacma baboon. Ann Thorac Surg 1986;41:520-524.
41. Tator CH. Classification of spinal cord injury based on neurological presentation. In: Narayan RK, Wilberger JE, Jr., Povlishock JT, eds. Neurotrauma. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996:1059-1073.
42. Eidelberg E. Consequences of spinal cord lesions upon motor function, with special reference to locomotor activity. Prog Neurobiol 1981;17:185-202.
43. MacKenzie CF, Geisler FH. Management of acute cervical spinal cord injury. In: Albin MS, ed. Textbook of Neuroanesthesia with Neurosurgical and Neuroscience Perspectives. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997:1083-1136.
44. Beecher HK et al. A definition of irreversible coma. Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to Examine the Definition of Brain Death. JAMA 1968;205:337-340.
45. American Academy of Neurology - Quality Standards Subcommittee. Practice parameters for determining brain death in adults (Summary statement). Neurology 1995;45:1012-1014.
46. Wijdicks EF. Determining brain death in adults. Neurology 1995;45:1003-1011.
47. Lehman KG, Lane JG, Piepmeier JM, Batsford WP. Cardiovascular abnormalities accompanying acute spinal cord injury in humans: incidence, time course and severity. J Am Coll Cardiol 1987;10:46-52.
48. Stoelting RK, Dierdorf SF, McCammon RL. Anesthesia and Co-Existing Disease. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1988.
49. Robertson KM, Cook DR. Perioperative management of the multiorgan donor. Anesth Analg 1990;70:546-556.
50. Drory Y, Ouaknine G, Kosary IZ, Kellermann JJ. Electrocardiographic findings in brain death; description and presumed mechanism. Chest 1975;67:425-432.
51. Rodts GE, Jr., Haid RW, Jr. Intensive care management of spinal cord injury. In: Narayan RK, Wilberger JE, Jr., Povlishock JT, eds. Neurotrauma. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996:1201-1212.
52. Logigian EL, Ropper AH. Terminal electrocardiographic changes in brain-dead patients. Neurology 1985; 35:915-918.
53. Winslow EBJ, Lesch M, Talano JV, Meyer PR, Jr. Spinal cord injuries associated with cardiopulmonary complications. Spine 1986;11:809-812.
54. Wolman L. The disturbance of circulation in traumatic paraplegia in acute and late stages: a pathological study. Paraplegia 1965;2:213-226.
55. Cahill DW, Rechtine GR. The acute complications of spinal cord injury. In: Narayan RK, Wilberger JE, Jr., Povlishock JT, eds. Neurotrauma. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996:1229-1236.
56. Frost FS. Gastrointestinal dysfunction in spinal cord injury. In: Yarkony GM, ed. Spinal Cord Injury. Medical Management and Rehabilitation. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers, 1994:27-39.
57. Arita K et al. The function of the hypothalamo-pituitary axis in brain dead patients. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1993;123:64-75.
58. Gramm H-J et al. Acute endocrine failure after brain death? Transplantation 1992;54:851-857.
59. Howlett TA et al. Anterior and posterior pituitary function in brain-stem-dead donors. A possible role for hormonal replacement therapy. Transplantation 1989;47:828-834.
60. Keogh AM, Howlett TA, Perry L, Rees LH. Pituitary function in brain-stem dead organ donors: a prospective survey. Transplant Proc 1988;20:729-730.
61. Powner DJ et al. Hormonal changes in brain dead patients. Crit Care Med 1990;18:702-708.
62. Boelen A et al. Induced illness in interleukin-6 (IL-6) knock-out mice: a causal role of IL-6 in the development of the low 3,5,3′- triiodothyronine syndrome. Endocrinology 1996;137:5250-5254.
63. Hashimoto H et al. The relationship between serum levels of interleukin-6 and thyroid hormone in children with acute respiratory infection. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994;78:288-291.
64. Berger MM, Lemarchand-Béraud T, Cavadini C, Chioléro R. Relations between the selenium status and the low T3 syndrome after major trauma. Intensive Care Med 1996;22:575-581.
65. Karayalçin K et al. Donor thyroid function does not affect outcome in orthotopic liver transplantation. Transplantation 1994;57:669-672.
66. Novitzky D, Cooper DK, Morrell D, Isaacs S. Change from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism after brain death, and reversal following triiodothyronine therapy. Transplantation 1988;45:32-36.
67. Washida M et al. Beneficial effect of combined 3,5,3′- triiodothyronine and vasopressin administration on hepatic energy status and systemic hemodynamics after brain death. Transplantation 1992;54:44-49.
68. Clark RE. Cardiopulmonary bypass and thyroid hormone metabolism. Ann Thorac Surg 1993;56(1 Suppl):S35-41; discussion S41-42.
69. Klemperer JD, Klein I, Gomez M, et al. Thyroid hormone treatment after coronary-artery bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 1995;333:1522-1527.
70. Hsu R-B, Huang T-S, Chen Y-S, Chu S-H. Effect of triiodothyronine administration in experimental myocardial injury. J Endocrinol Invest 1995;18:702-709.
71. Sypniewski E. Comparative pharmacology of the thyroid hormones. Ann Thorac Surg 1993;56(1 Suppl): S2-6; discussion S6-8.
72. Utiger RD. Altered thyroid function in nonthyroidal illness and surgery. N Engl J Med 1995;333:1562-1563.
73. Goarin J-P et al. The effects of triiodothyronine on hemodynamic status and cardiac function in potential heart donors. Anesth Analg 1996;83:41-47.
74. Randell TT, Höckerstedt KAV. Triiodothyronine treatment in brain-dead multiorgan donors - a controlled study. Transplantation 1992;54:736-738.
75. Chopra IJ. Clinical review 86: Euthyroid sick syndrome: Is it a misnomer? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82:329-334.
76. Rolih CA, Ober KP. The endocrine response to critical illness. Med Clin North Am 1995;79:211-224.
77. Cheville AL, Kirshblum SC. Thyroid hormone changes in chronic spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 1995;18:227-232.
78. Mesard L, Carmody A, Mannarino E, Ruge D. Survival after spinal cord trauma. A life table analysis. Arch Neurol 1978;35:78-83.
79. Carter RE, Graves DE. Spinal cord injury occurring in older individuals. In: Narayan RK, Wilberger JE, Jr., Povlishock JT, eds. Neurotrauma. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996:1281-1287.
80. Piepmeier JM. Late sequelae of spinal cord injury. In: Narayan RK, Wilberger JE, Jr., Povlishock JT, eds. Neurotrauma. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996:1237-1244.
81. Fitzgerald RD et al. Cardiovascular and catecholamine response to surgery in brain-dead organ donors. Anaesthesia 1995;50:388-392.
82. Fitzgerald RD et al. Endocrine stress reaction to surgery in brain-dead organ donors. Transpl Int 1996;9: 102-108.
83. Gramm H-J et al. Hemodynamic responses to noxious stimuli in brain-dead organ donors. Intensive Care Med 1992;18:493-495.
84. Gramm H-J, Schäfer M, Link J, Zimmermann J. Authors' reply and report on another manifestation of a possible rise in sympathoadrenal activity during retrieval surgery. Intensive Care Med 1994;20:165-166.
85. Hill DJ, Munglani R, Sapsford D. Haemodynamic responses to surgery in brain-dead organ donors [letter; comment]. Anaesthesia 1994;49:835-836.
86. Pennefather SH, Dark JH, Bullock RE. Haemodynamic responses to surgery in brain-dead organ donors. Anaesthesia 1993;48:1034-1038.
87. Pennefather SH. Hemodynamic responses to noxious stimuli in brain-dead organ donors [letter; comment]. Intensive Care Med 1994;20:165.
88. Fiser DH, Jimenez JF, Wrape V, Woody R. Diabetes insipidus in children with brain death. Crit Care Med 1987;15:551-553.
89. Garcia OD et al. Heart rate variability in coma and brain death. In: Machado C, ed. Brain Death. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Brain Death. Havana, Cuba, February 27-March 1, 1996. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1995:191-197.
90. Goldstein B et al. Autonomic control of heart rate after brain injury in children. Crit Care Med 1996;24: 234-240.
91. Blaustein AS, Walsh RA. Regulation of the cardiovascular system. In: Sperelakis N, Banks RO, eds. Essentials of Physiology. 2nd ed. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1996:309-321.
92. Kopp UC, DiBona GF. Neural control of volume homeostasis. In: Brenner BM, Stein JH, eds. Body Fluid Homeostasis. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1987:185-220.
93. Moss NG, Colindres RE, Gottschalk CW. Neural control of renal function. In: Windhager EE, ed. Handbook of Physiology. A critical, comprehensive presentation of physiological knowledge and concepts. Section 8: Renal Physiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992:1061-1128.
94. Shewmon DA. The brain and somatic integration: insights into the standard biological rationale for equating 'brain death' with death. J Med Philos 2001;26(5):457-478.
95. Litvinoff JS. Maternal brain death during pregnancy [letter]. JAMA 1989;261:1729.
96. Task Force for the Determination of Brain Death in Children. Guidelines for the determination of brain death in children. Ann Neurol 1987;21:616-617.
97. Black PM. Brain death (Second of two parts). N Engl J Med 1978;299:393-401.
98. Halevy A, Brody B. Brain death: reconciling definitions, criteria, and tests. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:519-525.
99. Taylor RM. Reexamining the definition and criteria of death. Semin Neurol 1997;17:265-270.
100. Truog RD. Is it time to abandon brain death? Hastings Cent Rep 1997;27:29-37.