Guidelines for feeding very low birthweight infants

Nutrients

Volumn 7, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 423-442

  Dutta, Sourabh ^a   Singh, Balpreet ^a   Chessell, Lorraine ^a   Wilson, Jennifer ^a   Janes, Marianne ^a   McDonald, Kimberley ^a   Shahid, Shaneela ^a   Gardner, Victoria A ^a   Hjartarson, Aune ^a   Purcha, Margaret ^a   Watson, Jennifer ^a   De Boer, Chris ^a   Gaal, Barbara ^a   Fusch, Christoph ^a  

^a MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Feeding; Neonate; Review; Very low birth weight

Indexed keywords

DOMPERIDONE; ENEMA; IBUPROFEN; INDOMETACIN; METOCLOPRAMIDE; GLYCEROL;

BODY POSITION; CHILD NUTRITION; ENTERIC FEEDING; FETUS GROWTH; FOOD INTAKE; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; HUMAN; HYPOTENSION; INFANT FEEDING; INTESTINE OBSTRUCTION; LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; MILK; NONINVASIVE VENTILATION; NUTRITIONAL TOLERANCE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RETINOPATHY; REVIEW; SEPSIS; SMALL FOR DATE INFANT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW (TOPIC); AIR CONDITIONING; BREAST FEEDING; BREAST MILK; CANADA; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DIET THERAPY; FETUS BLOOD; GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND AGING; HEALTH CARE POLICY; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); METABOLISM; NEWBORN; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PREMATURITY; PROCEDURES; STANDARDS; VERY LOW BIRTH WEIGHT;

BREAST FEEDING; CANADA; ENEMA; ENTERAL NUTRITION; FETAL BLOOD; FOOD, FORTIFIED; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; GLYCEROL; HUMANS; HYPOTENSION; IBUPROFEN; INDOMETHACIN; INFANT, NEWBORN; INFANT, PREMATURE; INFANT, VERY LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; META-ANALYSIS AS TOPIC; MILK, HUMAN; NUTRITION POLICY; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; VENTILATION;

EID: 84920940398     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20726643     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/nu7010423     Document Type: Review

References (88)

1. Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine—Levels of Evidence (March 2009). Available online: http://www.cebm.net/oxford-centre-evidence-based-medicine-levels-evidence-march-2009/ (accessed on 1 January 2015).
2. Flidel-Rimon, O.; Friedman, S.; Lev, E.; Juster-Reicher, A.; Amitay, M.; Shinwell, E.S. Early enteral feeding and nosocomial sepsis in very low birthweight infants. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2004, 89, F289–F292.
3. Hartel, C.; Haase, B.; Browning-Carmo, K.; Gebauer, C.; Kattner, E.; Kribs, A.; Segerer, H.; Teig, N.; Wense, A.; Wieg, C.; et al. Does the enteral feeding advancement affect short-term outcomes in very low birth weight infants? J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2009, 48, 464–470.
4. Rochow, N.; Fusch, G.; Muhlinghaus, A.; Niesytto, C.; Straube, S.; Utzig, N.; Fusch, C. A nutritional program to improve outcome of very low birth weight infants. Clin. Nutr. 2012, 31, 124–131.
5. McCallie, K.R.; Lee, H.C.; Mayer, O.; Cohen, R.S.; Hintz, S.R.; Rhine, W.D. Improved outcomes with a standardized feeding protocol for very low birth weight infants. J. Perinatol. 2011, 31 S61–S67.
6. Krishnamurthy, S.; Gupta, P.; Debnath, S.; Gomber, S. Slow versus rapid enteral feeding advancement in preterm newborn infants 1000–1499 g: A randomized controlled trial. Acta Paediatr. 2010, 99, 42–46.
7. Dhingra, A.; Agrawal, S.K.; Kumar, P.; Narang, A. A randomised controlled trial of two feeding schedules in neonates weighing ≤1750 g. J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009, 22, 198–203.
8. Rudiger, M.; Herrmann, S.; Schmalisch, G.; Wauer, R.R.; Hammer, H.; Tschirch, E. Comparison of 2-h versus 3-h enteral feeding in extremely low birth weight infants, commencing after birth. Acta Paediatr. 2008, 97, 764–769.
9. DeMauro, S.B.; Abbasi, S.; Lorch, S. The impact of feeding interval on feeding outcomes in very low birth-weight infants. J. Perinatol. 2011, 31, 481–486.
10. Morgan, J.; Bombell, S.; McGuire, W. Early trophic feeding versus enteral fasting for very preterm or very low birth weight infants. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2013, 3, CD000504, doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000504.pub4.
11. Dunn, L.; Hulman, S.; Weiner, J.; Kliegman, R. Beneficial effects of early hypocaloric enteral feeding on neonatal gastrointestinal function: Preliminary report of a randomized trial. J. Pediatr. 1988, 112, 622–629.
12. Meetze, W.H.; Valentine, C.; McGuigan, J.E.; Conlon, M.; Sacks, N.; Neu, J. Gastrointestinal priming prior to full enteral nutrition in very low birth weight infants. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 1992, 15, 163–170.
13. Morgan, J.; Young, L.; McGuire, W. Delayed introduction of progressive enteral feeds to prevent necrotising enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2014, 12, CD001970, doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001970.pub5.
14. Morgan, J.; Young, L.; McGuire, W. Slow advancement of enteral feed volumes to prevent necrotising enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2014, 12, CD001241, doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001241.pub5.
15. Schanler, R.J. Outcomes of human milk-fed premature infants. Semin. Perinatol. 2011, 35, 29–33.
16. Sullivan, S.; Schanler, R.J.; Kim, J.H.; Patel, A.L.; Trawoger, R.; Kiechl-Kohlendorfer, U.; Chan, G.M.; Blanco, C.L.; Abrams, S.; Cotten, C.M.; et al. An exclusively human milk-based diet is associated with a lower rate of necrotizing enterocolitis than a diet of human milk and bovine milk-based products. J. Pediatr. 2010, 156, 562–567.
17. Cristofalo, E.A.; Schanler, R.J.; Blanco, C.L.; Sullivan, S.; Trawoeger, R.; Kiechl-Kohlendorfer, U.; Dudell, G.; Rechtman, D.J.; Lee, M.L.; Lucas, A.; et al. Randomized trial of exclusive human milk versus preterm formula diets in extremely premature infants. J. Pediatr. 2013, 163, 1592–1595.
18. Schanler, R.J.; Lau, C.; Hurst, N.M.; Smith, E.O. Randomized trial of donor human milk versus preterm formula as substitutes for mothers’ own milk in the feeding of extremely premature infants. Pediatrics 2005, 116, 400–406.
19. Ganapathy, V.; Hay, J.W.; Kim, J.H. Costs of necrotizing enterocolitis and cost-effectiveness of exclusively human milk-based products in feeding extremely premature infants. Breastfeed. Med. 2012, 7, 29–37.
20. Mihatsch, W.A.; Pohlandt, F.; Franz, A.R.; Flock, F. Early feeding advancement in very low-birth-weight infants with intrauterine growth retardation and increased umbilical artery resistance. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2002, 35, 144–148.
21. Karagianni, P.; Briana, D.D.; Mitsiakos, G.; Elias, A.; Theodoridis, T.; Chatziioannidis, E.; Kyriakidou, M.; Nikolaidis, N. Early versus delayed minimal enteral feeding and risk for necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm growth-restricted infants with abnormal antenatal Doppler results. Am. J. Perinatol. 2010, 27, 367–373.
22. Van Elburg, R.M.; van den Berg, A.; Bunkers, C.M.; van Lingen, R.A.; Smink, E.W.; van, E.J.; Fetter, W.P. Minimal enteral feeding, fetal blood flow pulsatility, and postnatal intestinal permeability in preterm infants with intrauterine growth retardation. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2004, 89, F293–F296.
23. Leaf, A.; Dorling, J.; Kempley, S.; McCormick, K.; Mannix, P.; Linsell, L.; Juszczak, E.; Brocklehurst, P. Early or delayed enteral feeding for preterm growth-restricted infants: A randomized trial. Pediatrics 2012, 129, e1260–e1268.
24. Kempley, S.; Gupta, N.; Linsell, L.; Dorling, J.; McCormick, K.; Mannix, P.; Juszczak, E.; Brocklehurst, P.; Leaf, A. Feeding infants below 29 weeks’ gestation with abnormal antenatal Doppler: Analysis from a randomised trial. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2014, 99, F6–F11.
25. Havranek, T.; Madramootoo, C.; Carver, J.D. Nasal continuous positive airway pressure affects pre- and postprandial intestinal blood flow velocity in preterm infants. J. Perinatol. 2007, 27, 704–708.
26. Jaile, J.C.; Levin, T.; Wung, J.T.; Abramson, S.J.; Ruzal-Shapiro, C.; Berdon, W.E. Benign gaseous distension of the bowel in premature infants treated with nasal continuous airway pressure: A study of contributing factors. Am. J. Roentgenol. 1992, 158, 125–127.
27. Clyman, R.; Wickremasinghe, A.; Jhaveri, N.; Hassinger, D.C.; Attridge, J.T.; Sanocka, U.; Polin, R.; Gillam-Krakauer, M.; Reese, J.; Mammel, M.; et al. Enteral feeding during indomethacin and ibuprofen treatment of a patent ductus arteriosus. J. Pediatr. 2013, 163, 406–411.
28. Bellander, M.; Ley, D.; Polberger, S.; Hellstrom-Westas, L. Tolerance to early human milk feeding is not compromised by indomethacin in preterm infants with persistent ductus arteriosus. Acta Paediatr. 2003, 92, 1074–1078.
29. Pezzati, M.; Vangi, V.; Biagiotti, R.; Bertini, G.; Cianciulli, D.; Rubaltelli, F.F. Effects of indomethacin and ibuprofen on mesenteric and renal blood flow in preterm infants with patent ductus arteriosus. J. Pediatr. 1999, 135, 733–738.
30. Ohlsson, A.; Walia, R.; Shah, S.S. Ibuprofen for the treatment of patent ductus arteriosus in preterm and/or low birth weight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013, 4, CD003481, doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003481.pub5.
31. Malhotra, A.K.; Deorari, A.K.; Paul, V.K.; Bagga, A.; Singh, M. Gastric residuals in preterm babies. J. Trop. Pediatr. 1992, 38, 262–264.
32. Mihatsch, W.A.; von Schoenaich P.; Fahnenstich, H.; Dehne, N.; Ebbecke, H.; Plath, C.; von Stockhausen, H.B.; Muche, R.; Franz, A.; Pohlandt, F. The significance of gastric residuals in the early enteral feeding advancement of extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2002, 109, 457–459.
33. Mihatsch, W.A.; Franz, A.R.; Hogel, J.; Pohlandt, F. Hydrolyzed protein accelerates feeding advancement in very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2002, 110, 1199–1203.
34. Shulman, R.J.; Ou, C.N.; Smith, E.O. Evaluation of potential factors predicting attainment of full gavage feedings in preterm infants. Neonatology 2011, 99, 38–44.
35. Torrazza, R.M.; Parker, L.A.; Talaga, E.; Shuster, J.; Neu, J. The value of routine evaluation of gastric residuals in very low birth weight infants. J. Perinatol. 2014, doi:10.1038/jp.2014.147.
36. Bertino, E.; Giuliani, F.; Prandi, G.; Coscia, A.; Martano, C.; Fabris, C. Necrotizing enterocolitis: Risk factor analysis and role of gastric residuals in very low birth weight infants. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2009, 48, 437–442.
37. Cobb, B.A.; Carlo, W.A.; Ambalavanan, N. Gastric residuals and their relationship to necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2004, 113, 50–53.
38. Eizaguirre, I.; Emparanza, J.; Tovar, J.A.; Weilin, W.; Tapia, I. Duodenogastric reflux: Values in normal children and in children with gastroesophageal reflux. Cir. Pediatr. 1993, 6, 114–116. (In Spanish)
39. Wang, W.; Ji, S.; Wang, H.; Wang, W. 24-Hour gastroesophageal double pH monitoring acid and alkaline gastroesophageal and duodenogastric refluxes in pediatric patients. Chin. Med. J. (Engl.) 1998, 111, 881–884.
40. Bhatia, P.; Johnson, K.J.; Bell, E.F. Variability of abdominal circumference of premature infants. J. Pediatr. Surg. 1990, 25, 543–544.
41. Johnson, T.S.; Engstrom, J.L.; Gelhar, D.K. Intra- and interexaminer reliability of anthropometric measurements of term infants. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 1997, 24, 497–505.
42. Li, Y.; Lin, H.; Torrazza, R.M.; Parker, L.; Talaga, E.; Neu, J. Gastric residual evaluation in preterm neonates: A useful monitoring technique or a hindrance? Pediatr. Neonatol. 2014, 55, 335–340.
43. De, V.K.; Knapp, E.; Al-Tawil, Y.; Berseth, C.L. Slow infusion feedings enhance duodenal motor responses and gastric emptying in preterm infants. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1998, 68, 103–108.
44. Premji, S.; Chessell, L. Continuous nasogastric milk feeding versus intermittent bolus milk feeding for premature infants less than 1500 grams. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011, 11, CD001819, doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001819.pub2.
45. Macklin, D. What’s physics got to do with it? A review of the physical principles of fluid administration. J. Vasc. Access Devices 1999, 4, 7–11.
46. Chen, S.S.; Tzeng, Y.L.; Gau, B.S.; Kuo, P.C.; Chen, J.Y. Effects of prone and supine positioning on gastric residuals in preterm infants: A time series with cross-over study. Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 2013, 50, 1459–1467.
47. Di, F.J.; Arko, M.; Herynk, B.; Martin, R.; Hibbs, A.M. Characterization of cardiorespiratory events following gastroesophageal reflux in preterm infants. J. Perinatol. 2010, 30, 683–687.
48. Peter, C.S.; Sprodowski, N.; Bohnhorst, B.; Silny, J.; Poets, C.F. Gastroesophageal reflux and apnea of prematurity: No temporal relationship. Pediatrics 2002, 109, 8–11.
49. Lopez-Alonso, M.; Moya, M.J.; Cabo, J.A.; Ribas, J.; del Carmen, M.M.; Silny, J.; Sifrim, D. Twenty-four-hour esophageal impedance-pH monitoring in healthy preterm neonates: Rate and characteristics of acid, weakly acidic, and weakly alkaline gastroesophageal reflux. Pediatrics 2006, 118, e299–e308.
50. Corvaglia, L.; Zama, D.; Gualdi, S.; Ferlini, M.; Aceti, A.; Faldella, G. Gastro-oesophageal reflux increases the number of apnoeas in very preterm infants. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2009, 94, F188–F192.
51. Corvaglia, L.; Zama, D.; Spizzichino, M.; Aceti, A.; Mariani, E.; Capretti, M.G.; Galletti, S.; Faldella, G. The frequency of apneas in very preterm infants is increased after non-acid gastro-esophageal reflux. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 2011, 23, 303–307, e152.
52. Snel, A.; Barnett, C.P.; Cresp, T.L.; Haslam, R.R.; Davidson, G.P.; Malbert, T.H.; Dent, J.; Omari, T.I. Behavior and gastroesophageal reflux in the premature neonate. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2000, 30, 18–21.
53. Feranchak, A.P.; Orenstein, S.R.; Cohn, J.F. Behaviors associated with onset of gastroesophageal reflux episodes in infants. Prospective study using split-screen video and pH probe. Clin. Pediatr. (Phila.) 1994, 33, 654–662.
54. Barnett, C.P.; Omari, T.; Davidson, G.P.; Goodchild, L.; Lontis, R.; Dent, J.; Haslam, R.R. Effect of cisapride on gastric emptying in premature infants with feed intolerance. J. Paediatr. Child Health 2001, 37, 559–563.
55. Moore, D.J.; Tao, B.S.; Lines, D.R.; Hirte, C.; Heddle, M.L.; Davidson, G.P. Double-blind placebo-controlled trial of omeprazole in irritable infants with gastroesophageal reflux. J. Pediatr. 2003, 143, 219–223.
56. Corvaglia, L.; Rotatori, R.; Ferlini, M.; Aceti, A.; Ancora, G.; Faldella, G. The effect of body positioning on gastroesophageal reflux in premature infants: Evaluation by combined impedance and pH monitoring. J. Pediatr. 2007, 151, 591–596.
57. American Academy of Pediatrics. Task force on sudden infant death syndrome. The changing concept of sudden infant death syndrome: Diagnostic coding shifts, controversies regarding the sleeping environment, and new variables to consider in reducing risk. Pediatrics 2005, 116, 1245–1255.
58. Canadian Pediatric Society. Recommendations for Safe Sleeping Environments for Infants and Children. Paediatr. Child Health. 2004, 9, 659–663.
59. Cresi, F.; Marinaccio, C.; Russo, M.C.; Miniero, R.; Silvestro, L. Short-term effect of domperidone on gastroesophageal reflux in newborns assessed by combined intraluminal impedance and pH monitoring. J. Perinatol. 2008, 28, 766–770.
60. Wheatley, E.; Kennedy, K.A. Cross-over trial of treatment for bradycardia attributed to gastroesophageal reflux in preterm infants. J. Pediatr. 2009, 155, 516–521.
61. Djeddi, D.; Kongolo, G.; Lefaix, C.; Mounard, J.; Leke, A. Effect of domperidone on QT interval in neonates. J. Pediatr. 2008, 153, 663–666.
62. Gunlemez, A.; Babaoglu, A.; Arisoy, A.E.; Turker, G.; Gokalp, A.S. Effect of domperidone on the QTc interval in premature infants. J. Perinatol. 2010, 30, 50–53.
63. Bianconi, S.; Gudavalli, M.; Sutija, V.G.; Lopez, A.L.; Barillas-Arias, L.; Ron, N. Ranitidine and late-onset sepsis in the neonatal intensive care unit. J. Perinat. Med. 2007, 35, 147–150.
64. Guillet, R.; Stoll, B.J.; Cotten, C.M.; Gantz, M.; McDonald, S.; Poole, W.K.; Phelps, D.L. Association of H2-blocker therapy and higher incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2006, 117, e137–e142.
65. Terrin, G.; Passariello, A.; De, C.M.; Manguso, F.; Salvia, G.; Lega, L.; Messina, F.; Paludetto, R.; Canani, R.B. Ranitidine is associated with infections, necrotizing enterocolitis, and fatal outcome in newborns. Pediatrics 2012, 129, e40–e45.
66. Omari, T.I.; Haslam, R.R.; Lundborg, P.; Davidson, G.P. Effect of omeprazole on acid gastroesophageal reflux and gastric acidity in preterm infants with pathological acid reflux. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2007, 44, 41–44.
67. Davidson, G.; Wenzl, T.G.; Thomson, M.; Omari, T.; Barker, P.; Lundborg, P.; Illueca, M. Efficacy and safety of once-daily esomeprazole for the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease in neonatal patients. J. Pediatr. 2013, 163, 692–698.
68. Huang, R.C.; Forbes, D.; Davies, M.W. Feed thickener for newborn infants with gastro-oesophageal reflux. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2002, 3, CD003211, doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003211.
69. Gouyon, J.B.; Boggio, V.; Fantino, M.; Gillot, I.; Schatz, B.; Vallin, A. Smectite reduces gastroesophageal reflux in newborn infants. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. 1989, 13, 46–50.
70. Corvaglia, L.; Spizzichino, M.; Aceti, A.; Legnani, E.; Mariani, E.; Martini, S.; Battistini, B.; Faldella, G. A thickened formula does not reduce apneas related to gastroesophageal reflux in preterm infants. Neonatology 2013, 103, 98–102.
71. Woods, C.W.; Oliver, T.; Lewis, K.; Yang, Q. Development of necrotizing enterocolitis in premature infants receiving thickened feeds using SimplyThick®. J. Perinatol. 2012, 32, 150–152.
72. Clarke, P.; Robinson, M.J. Thickening milk feeds may cause necrotising enterocolitis. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2004, 89, F280, doi:10.1136/adc.2003.036392.
73. Mercier, J.C.; Hartmann, J.F.; Cohen, R.; Tran, H.; Biriotti, V.; Kessler, A. Intestinal occlusion and enterocolitis caused by Gelopectose. Arch. Fr. Pediatr. 1984, 41, 709–710. (In French)
74. Poets, C.F.; Langner, M.U.; Bohnhorst, B. Effects of bottle feeding and two different methods of gavage feeding on oxygenation and breathing patterns in preterm infants. Acta Paediatr. 1997, 86, 419–423.
75. Watson, J.; McGuire, W. Transpyloric versus gastric tube feeding for preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2013, 2, CD003487, doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003487.pub3.
76. Malcolm, W.F.; Smith, P.B.; Mears, S.; Goldberg, R.N.; Cotten, C.M. Transpyloric tube feeding in very low birthweight infants with suspected gastroesophageal reflux: Impact on apnea and bradycardia. J. Perinatol. 2009, 29, 372–375.
77. Ng, E.; Shah, V.S. Erythromycin for the prevention and treatment of feeding intolerance in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2008, 3, CD001815, doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001815.pub2.
78. Mansi, Y.; Abdelaziz, N.; Ezzeldin, Z.; Ibrahim, R. Randomized controlled trial of a high dose of oral erythromycin for the treatment of feeding intolerance in preterm infants. Neonatology 2011, 100, 290–294.
79. Ng, Y.; Su, P.; Chen, J.; Quek, Y.; Hu, J.; Lee, I.; Lee, H.; Chang, H. Efficacy of intermediate-dose oral erythromycin on very low birth weight infants with feeding intolerance. Pediatr. Neonatol. 2012, 53, 34–40.
80. Rogers, S.P.; Hicks, P.D.; Hamzo, M.; Veit, L.E.; Abrams, S.A. Continuous feedings of fortified human milk deeds to nutrient losses of fat, calcium and phosphorus. Nutrients 2010, 2, 230–240.
81. Berseth, C.L.; Van Aerde, J.E.; Gross, S.; Stolz, S.I.; Harris, C.L.; Hansen, J.W. Growth, efficacy, and safety of feeding an iron-fortified human milk fortifier. Pediatrics 2004, 114, e699–e706.
82. Schanler, R.J.; Abrams, S.A. Postnatal attainment of intrauterine macromineral accretion rates in low birth weight infants fed fortified human milk. J. Pediatr. 1995, 126, 441–447.
83. Schanler, R.J.; Shulman, R.J.; Lau, C. Feeding strategies for premature infants: Beneficial outcomes of feeding fortified human milk versus preterm formula. Pediatrics 1999, 103, 1150–1157.
84. Tillman, S.; Brandon, D.H.; Silva, S.G. Evaluation of human milk fortification from the time of the first feeding: Effects on infants of less than 31 weeks gestational age. J. Perinatol. 2012, 32, 525–531.
85. Weaver, L.T.; Lucas, A. Development of bowel habit in preterm infants. Arch. Dis. Child. 1993, 68, 317–320.
86. Mihatsch, W.A.; Franz, A.R.; Lindner, W.; Pohlandt, F. Meconium passage in extremely low birthweight infants and its relation to very early enteral nutrition. Acta Paediatr. 2001, 90, 409–411.
87. Shim, S.Y.; Kim, H.S.; Kim, D.H.; Kim, E.K.; Son, D.W.; Kim, B.I.; Choi, J.H. Induction of early meconium evacuation promotes feeding tolerance in very low birth weight infants. Neonatology 2007, 92, 67–72.
88. Khadr, S.N.; Ibhanesebhor, S.E.; Rennix, C.; Fisher, H.E.; Manjunatha, C.M.; Young, D.; Abara, R.C. Randomized controlled trial: Impact of glycerin suppositories on time to full feeds in preterm infants. Neonatology 2011, 100, 169–176.