Gender and computers: Understanding the digital divide

Gender and Computers: Understanding the Digital Divide

Volumn , Issue , 2003, Pages 1-168

  Cooper, Joel ^a   Weaver, Kimberlee D ^a  

^a PRINCETON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84917326409     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9781410608932     Document Type: Book

References (149)

1. American Association of University Women. (1998a). Gender gaps: Where schools still fail our children. New York: Marlowe & Co.
2. American Association of University Women. (1998b). Separated by sex: A critical look at single-sex education for girls. Washington, DC: The Foundation.
3. American Association of University Women Educational Foundation Commission on Technology, Gender and Teacher Education. (2000). Tech-Savvy: Educating girls in the new computer age. Washington, DC: American Association of University Women Educational Foundation.
4. Anderson, F. S. (1999). The prediction and correlates of adolescent relationship identity. Dissertation Abstracts International-B60(5-B): 2382.
5. Aronson, E. (1992). Readings about the social animal. New York: W. H. Freeman and Co.
6. Aronson, E., Stephan, C., Sikes, J., Blaney, N., Snapp, M.(1978).The Jigsaw Classroom. Beverly Hills: Sage.
7. Aronson, J., Lustina, M. J., Good, C., Keough, K., Steele, C. M., & Brown, J. (1999). When White men can't do math: Necessary and sufficient factors in stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 29-46.
8. Atwell, P.,& Battle, J. (1999). Home computers and school performance. The Information Society, 15, 1-10.
9. Bank, B. J. (1995). Gendered accounts: Undergraduates explain why they seek their bachelor's degree. Sex Roles, 32, 527- 544.
10. Barbierri, M. S., & Light, P. (1992). Interaction, gender and performance on a computer- based problem solving task. Learning and Instruction, 2, 199-213.
11. Baroudi, J. J., & Igbaria, M. (1995). An examination of gender effects on career success of information systems employees. Journal of Management Information Systems, 11, 181-201.
12. Belle, D. (1989). Children's social networks and social supports. Oxford, England: John Wiley and Sons.
13. Brosnan, M. J. (1998). The impact of psychological gender, gender-related perceptions, significant others, and the introducer of technology upon computer anxiety in students. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 18, 63-78.
14. Brunner, C. (1997). Opening technology to girls. Electronic Learning, 16, 55.
15. Brutsaert, H.,& Bracke,P.(1994). Gender contextofthe elementaryschool: Sex differences in affective outcomes. Educational Studies, 20, 3-11.
16. Burger, C. J., & Sandy, M. L. (1998). A guide to gender fair education in science and mathematics. Washington, DC: Officeof Educational Research and Improvement.
17. Cairns, E. (1990). Impact of television news exposure on children's perceptions of violence in Northern Ireland. Journal of Social Psychology, 130, 447-452.
18. Campbell, P. B., & Storo, J. N. (1994). Why me? Why my classroom? Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
19. Carpenter, P. W., & Hayden, M. (1987). Girls' academic achievements: Single-sex versus coeducational schoolsinAustralia.Sociology of Education, 60, 156-167.
20. Chappel, K. K. (1996). Mathematics computer software characteristics with possible gender-specific impact: A content analysis. Journal of Educational Computer Research, 15, 25-35.
21. Chua,S.L., Chen,D.T.,& Wong,A.F.L.(1999). Computer anxiety and itscorrelates: A meta-analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 15, 609-623.
22. Clarke, V. A., & Chambers, S. M. (1989). Gender-based factors in computing enrollments and achievement: Evidence from a study of tertiary students. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 5, 409-429.
23. Cleary, C. (2002, February 10). Where the girls rule. The Seattle Times, p. A1.
24. Cohen, G. L., Steele, C. M., & Ross, L. D. (1999). The mentor's dilemma: Providing critical feedback across the racial divide. Personality andSocial Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1302-1318.
25. College Board Statistics. (2001). College Board, 2001.
26. Colley, A. N., Gale, M.T., & Harris, T. A.(1994). Effects of gender role identity and experienceon computer attitude components.Journal of Educational Computing Research, 10, 129-137.
27. Collis, B. A. (1987). Sex differences in the association between secondary school students' attitudes toward mathematics and toward computers. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 18, 394-402.
28. Coomber, C., Colley, A.,Hargreaves,D.J.,& Dorn,L.(1997). The effectsofage, gender and computer experience upon computer attitudes. Educational Research, 39, 123-133.
29. Cooper, J. (1991). Video arcades. Unpublished manuscript, Princeton University.
30. Cooper, J.,& Mackie,D.(1986). Video games and aggressioninchildren.Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 16, 726-744.
31. Cooper, J., & Stone, J. (1996). Gender, computer-assisted learning, and anxiety: With a little help from a friend. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 15, 67-91.
32. Cooper, J., Hall, J.,& Huff,C. (1990). Situational stress asaconsequenceof sex-stereotyped software. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16, 419-429.
33. Dalton, D., Hannafin,M.J.,& Hooper ,S.(1989).Theeffectsofcooperative versus individualized instructional strategies on learning from computer-based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 37, 15-24.
34. Dambrot, F. H, Watkins-Malek, M. A., Silling, S. M., Marshall, R. S, & Garver, J. A. (1985). Correlates of sex differences in attitudes toward and involvement with computers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 27, 71-86.
35. Darley, J. M., & Latane, B. (1968). Bystander intervention emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 377-383.
36. Deaux, K. (1976).Sex: A perspective on the attribution process. InJ. H. Harney, W.J. Ickes, & R. F. Kidd (Eds.), New directions in attribution research (Vol. 1, pp. 335-352). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
37. Diener, C. I, & Dweck, C. S. (1978). An analysis of learned helplessness: Continuous changes in performance, strategy, and achievement cognitions following failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 451-462.
38. Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41, 1040-1048.
39. Dweck, C. S, Chiu, C, & Hong, Y. (1995). Implicit theories and their role in judgments and reactions: A world from two perspectives. Psychological Inquiry, 6, 267-285.
40. Dweck, C. S, & Reppucci, N. D. (1973). Learned helplessness and reinforcement responsibility in children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25,109-116.
41. Eagly, A. H., & Kite, M. E. (1987). Are stereotypes of nationalities applied to both women and men? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 451-462.
42. Farina, F, Arce, R., Sobral, J., & Carames, R. (1991). Predictors of anxiety towards computers. Computers in Human Behavior, 7, 263-267.
43. Frey, K. S., & Ruble, D. N. (1992). Gender constancy and the "cost" of sex-typed behavior: A test of the conflict hypothesis. Developmental Psychology, 28, 714-721.
44. Frieze, I. H. (1976). Causal attributions and information seeking to explain success and failure. Journal of Research in Personality, 10, 293-305.
45. Furger, R. (1998). Does Jane compute? New York: Warner Books.
46. Geis, F. L., Boston, M. B., & Hoffman, N. (1985). Sex of authority role models and achievement by men and women: Leadership performance and recognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 636-653.
47. Granleese, J, & Joseph, J. (1993). Self-perception profile of adolescent girls at a single-sex and a mixed-sex school. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 154,525-530.
48. Grayson, D., & Martin, M. (1988). Gender expectations and student achievement: Teacher handbook. Earlham, IA: GrayMill Foundation.
49. Gressard, C. P., & Loyd, B. H. (1986). The nature and correlates of computer anxiety in college students. Journal of Human Behavior and Learning, 3, 28-33.
50. Gwizdala, J., & Steinback, M. (1990). High school females' mathematics attitudes: An interim report. School Science and Mathematics, 90, 215-223.
51. Haberman, C. (2001, June 27). Tears of joy at a graduation for girls only. New York Times, p. B1.
52. Harvey, T. J., & Stables, A. (1986). Gender differences in attitudes to science for third-year pupils: An argument for single-sex teaching groups in mixed schools. Research in Science and Technological Education, 4, 163-170.
53. Hemenway, K. (1995). Human nature and the glass ceiling in industry. Communications of the ACM, 38, 1.
54. Higher Education Research Institute. (1996). Graduate School of Education and Information Studies, The American Freshman: National Norms for Fall 1996. Report, University of California, Los Angeles.
55. Huff, C., & Cooper, J.(1987). Sex bias in educational software: The effectof designers' stereotypes on the software they design. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, 519-532.
56. Jacklin, C. N., & Maccoby, E. E. (1978). Social behavior at thirty-three months in same-sex and mixed-sex dyads. Child Development, 49, 557-569.
57. Jackson, C., & Smith, I. D. (2000). Poles apart? An exploration of single-sex and mixed-sex educational environments in Australia and England. Educational Studies, 26, 409-422.
58. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1989). Cooperation and competition: Theory and research. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Co.
59. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., Richards, D. S., & Buckman, L. A. (1986). The effect of prolonged implementation of cooperative learning on social support within the classroom. Journal of Psychology, 119, 405-411.
60. Johnson, D. W., Maruyama, G., Johnson, R. T., Nelson, D., & Skon, L. (1981). Effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures on achievement: A meta analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 89, 47-62.
61. Johnson, R. T., Johnson, D. W., & Stanne, M. B. (1985). Effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures on computer-assisted instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 668-677.
62. Jones, T., & Clarke, V. (1995). Diversity as a determinant of attitudes: A possible explanation of the apparent advantage of single-sex settings. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 12, 51-64.
63. Kaminer, W. (1998). The trouble with single sex schools. Atlantic Monthly, April.
64. Klawe, M.,& Leveson,N.(1995). Womenincomputing: Where arewenow? Communications of the ACM, 38, 1.
65. Kohlberg,L. (1966).A cognitive-developmental analysis of children's sex-role concepts and attitudes. In. E. E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex differences (pp. 82-173). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
66. Latimer, C. P. (2001). The digital divide: Understanding and addressing the challenge. New York, NY: New York State Forum for Information Resource Management.
67. Lawrie, L., & Brown, R. (1992). Sex stereotypes, school subject preferences and career aspirations as a function of single/mixed-sex schooling and presence/ absenceof anopposite sex sibling. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 62, 132-138.
68. Lee, V. E., & Bryk, A. S. (1986). Effects of single-sex secondary schools on student achievement and attitudes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 381-395.
69. Lee,V.E.,& Lockheed, M.E.(1990). The effectsofsingle-sex schoolingonachievement and attitudes in Nigeria. Comparative Education Review, 34, 209-231.
70. Lee, V. E., & Marks, H. M. (1990). Sustained effects of the single-sex secondary school experience on attitudes, behaviors, and values in college. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 578-592.
71. LePore, P.C.,& Warren, J. R. (1997). Acomparison ofsingle-sex and coeducational Catholic secondary schooling: Evidence from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988. American Educational Research Journal, 34, 485-511.
72. Lepper, M. R., & Malone, T. W. (1987). Intrinsic motivation and instructional effectiveness in computer-based education. In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning and instruction: Vol. 3. Conative and affective process analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
73. Licht, B. G., & Dweck, C. S. (1984). Determinants of academic achievement: The interaction of children's achievement orientations with skill area. Developmental Psychology, 20, 628-636.
74. Light, P., Littleton, K., Bale, S., Joiner, R., & Messer, D. (2000). Gender and social comparison effects in computer-based problem solving. Learning and Instruction, 10, 483-496.
75. Lichtman, J. (1998). The Cyber Sisters Club: Using the Internet to bridge the technology gap with inner city girls. T.H.E. Journal, 26, 47.
76. Littleton, K., Light, P., Joiner, R., Messer, D., & Barnes, P. (1992). Pairing and gender effects on children's compute-based learning. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 7, 311-324.
77. Littleton, K., Light, P., Joiner, R., Messer, D., & Barnes, P. (1998). Gender, task scenarios and children's computer-based problem solving. Educational Psychology, 18, 327-340.
78. Lord, C., & Saenz, D. S. (1985). Memory deficits and memory surfeits. Differential cognitive consequences of tokenism for tokens and observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 918-926.
79. Maccoby, E. E. (1990). Gender and relationships: A development account. American Psychologist, 45, 513-520.
80. Mael, F. A. (1998). Single-sex and coeducational schooling: Relationships to socioemotional and academic development. Review of Educational Research, 68, 101-129.
81. Marsh, H. W. (1991). Public, Catholic single-sex, and Catholic coeducational high Schools: Their effects on achievement, affect, and behaviors. American Journal of Education, 99, 320-356.
82. Marsh,H.W.(1989). Effectsofattending single-sex and coeducational high schools on achievement, attitudes, behaviors and sex differences. Educational Psychology, 81, 70-85.
83. Martin, R. (1991). Schoolchildren's attitudes toward computers as a function of gender, course subjects and availability of home computers. Journal of Computer- Assisted Learning, 7, 187-194.
84. Matthews, J. (1988). Escalante: The best teacher in America. New York: Henry Holt & Co. Mattson, P. O. (1960). Communicated anxiety in a two person situation. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24, 488-495.
85. McClelland, M. (2001). Closing the IT gap for race and gender. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 25, 5-15.
86. McGuire, W. J., & McGuire, C. V. (1981). The spontaneous self-concept as affected by personal distinctiveness. In M. D. Lynch, A. Norem-Hebeisen, & K. J. Gergen (Eds.), Self-concept: Advances in theory and research (pp. 147-171). Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
87. Michaels, J. W., Blommel, J. M., Brocato, R. M., Linkous, R. A., & Rowe, J. S. (1982). Social facilitation and inhibition in a natural setting. Replications in Social Psychology (now Contemporary Social Psychology), 2, 21-24.
88. Miller, D. T., Taylor, B., & Buck, M. L. (1991). Gender gaps: Who needs to be explained? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 5-12.
89. Miller-Bernal,L. (1993). Single-sex versus coeducational environments: Acomparisonofwomen students' experiencesat four colleges. American Journal of Education, 102, 23-54.
90. National Coalition of Girls' Schools (2000). Fall Data Survey. Retrieved February 28, 2003, from http://www.ncgs.org
91. Nelson, L. J., & Cooper, J. (1997). Gender differences in children's reactions to success and failure with computers. Computers in Human Behavior, 13, 247-267.
92. Nelson, L. J., Weise, G. M., & Cooper, J. (1991). Getting stared with computers: Experience, anxiety, and relational style. Computers in Human Behavior, 7, 185-202.
93. Newman, L. S., Ruble, D. N., & Cooper, J. (1995). Gender and computers: II. The interactive effects of knowledge and constancy on gender-stereotyped attitudes. Sex Roles, 33, 325-351.
94. Nicholls, J. G. (1975). Causal attributions and other achievement-related cognitions: Effects of task outcome, attainment value, and sex. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 379-389.
95. Okebukola, P. A., & Woda, A. B. (1993). The gender factor in computer anxiety and interest among some Australian high school students. Educational Research, 35, 181-189.
96. Panteli, N., Stack, J., & Ramsay,H.(2001). Gendered patterns in computing work in the late 1990s. New Technology, Work and Employment, 16, 3-17.
97. Papadakis, E. (2000). Environmental values and political action. Journal of Sociology, 36, 81-97.
98. Parsons, J.E., Meece, J. L., Adler,T.F., & Kaczala, C. M.(1982). Sex differencesinattributions and learned helplessness. Sex Roles, 8, 421-432.
99. Plaut, V. C., Cheryan, S., Rios, K. M., & Steele, C. M. (2003, February). Diversifying sociocultural representations of computer science to increase women's participation. Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Los Angeles, CA.
100. Polimeni, A. M., Hardie, E., & Buzwell, S. (2002). Friendship closeness inventory: Development and psychometric evaluation. Psychological Reports, 91, 142-152.
101. Powlishta,K.K.(1987, April).Thesocial contextof cross-sex interactions.Paper presented at biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Baltimore, MD.
102. Reinen, I. J., & Plomp, T. (1997). Information technology and gender equality: A contradiction in terminis? Computers and Education, 28, 65-78.
103. Riordan, C. H. (1990). Girls and boys in school: Together or separate? New York: Teachers College Press.
104. Robinson-Staveley, K., & Cooper, J. (1990). Mere presence, gender, and reactions to computers: Studying human-computer interaction in the social context. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 168-183.
105. Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom: Teacher expectation and pupil's intellectual development. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
106. Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (1999). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 743-762.
107. Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. (1994). Failing at fairness: How America's schools cheat girls. New York: C. Scribner's Sons.
108. Schmader, T. (2002). Gender identification moderates stereotype threat effects on women's math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 194-201.
109. Schlechter, T. (1990). The relative instructional efficiency of small group computer- based telecommunications for instruction. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 6, 329-341.
110. Schofield, J. W. (1995). Computers and classroom culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
111. Selwyn, N. (1998). The effect of using a home computer on students' educational use of it. Computers and Education, 31, 211-227.
112. Serbin, L. A., Sprafkin, C., Elman, M., & Doyle, A. B. (1982). The early development of sex-differentiated patterns of social influence. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 14, 350-363.
113. Shih, M., Pittinsky, T. L., & Ambady, N. (1999). Stereotype susceptibility: Identity salienceand shiftsinquantitative performance.Psychological Science, 10, 80-83.
114. Signorella, M. L., Frieze, I. H., & Hershey, S. W. (1996). Single-sex versus mixed-sex classes and gender schemata in children and adolescents. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 599-607.
115. Slaby,R.G.,& Frey,K.S.(1975). Developmentofgender constancy and selective attention to same-sex models. Child Development, 46, 849-856.
116. Smith, D. G. (1990). Women's colleges and coed colleges: Is there a difference for Women? Journal of Higher Education, 61, 181-197.
117. Snyder, M., Tanke, E., & Berscheid, E. (1977). Social perception and interpersonal behavior: On the self-fulfilling nature of social stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 656-666.
118. Solnick, S. (1995). Changes in women's majors from entrance to graduation at women's and coeducational colleges. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 48, 505-514.
119. Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women's math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 4-28.
120. Stables, A. (1990). Differences between pupils from mixed and single-sex schools in their enjoyment of school subjects in their attitudes to science and to school. Educational Review, 42, 221-230.
121. Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613-629.
122. Steele,C.M.,& Aronson,J.(1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797-811.
123. Stephenson, S.D.(1994). The useofsmall groupsincomputer-based training: Areview of recent literature. Computers in Human Behavior, 10, 243-259.
124. Stone, J., Lynch, C. I., Sjomeling, M., & Darley, J. M. (1999). Stereotype threat effects on Black and White athletic performance.Journal of Personality andSocial Psychology, 77, 1213-1227.
125. Stone, J., Perry, Z. W., & Darley, J. M. (1997). "White men can't jump": Evidence for the perceptual confirmation of racial stereotypes following a basketball game. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 19, 291-306.
126. Stowe, L. G. (1991). Should physics classes be single sex? Physics Teacher, 29, 380-381.
127. Stricker, L., & Rock, D. A. (1995). Examinee background characteristics and GRE general test performance. Intelligence, 21, 49-67.
128. Temple, L., & Lips, H. M. (1989). Gender differences and similarities in attitudes toward computers. Computers in Human Behavior, 5, 215-226.
129. Thompson, S. K. (1975). Gender labels and early sex role development. Child Development, 46, 339-347.
130. Tiedemann, J. (2000). Parents' gender stereotypes and teachers' beliefs as predictors of children's concept of their mathematical ability in elementary school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 144-151.
131. Tijdens, K. G. (1997). Behind the screens: The foreseen and unforeseen impact of computerization on female office worker's jobs. Gender, Work, and Organization, 6, 47-57.
132. Todman, J., & Dick, G. (1993). Primary children and teacher's attitudes to computers. Computers and Education, 20, 199-203.
133. "Trying to predict the future." Popular Computing, 3, 30-44.
134. Turkle, S., & Papert, S. (1990). Epistemological pluralism: Styles and voices within the computer culture. Signs, 16, 128-157.
135. U.S. Department of Education (1992). Cooperative learning. Officeof Research Education Consumer Guide. Washington, DC: Author.
136. U.S. Department of Education (1996).Digest of Education Statistics, 1996. Washington, DC: Author.
137. U.S. Department of Education (2000). 1999-2000 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study. Washington, DC: Author.
138. U.S. Department of Education (2002, May 1). Press release: Secretary Paige announces intent to provide more flexibility regarding single-sex classes and schools.
139. Virginia Space Grant Consortium (1996). Gender equity awareness training module with classroom strategies for mathematics, science and technology. Hampton, VA: Author.
140. Weil, M.M., Rosen,L. D., & Sears, D. C. (1987). The computerphobia reduction program: Year 1. Program development and preliminary results. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 19, 180-184.
141. Weiner,B.(1979).Atheory of motivation for some classroom experiences.Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 3-25.
142. Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion. New York: Springer-Verlag.
143. Weiner, B., Frieze, I., Kukla, A., Reed, L., Rest, B., & Rosenbaum, R. M. (1971). Perceiving the causes of success and failure. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
144. Whitley, B. E., Jr. (1997). Gender differences in computer-related attitudes and behavior: A meta-analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 13, 1-22.
145. Wilder, G., Mackie, D., & Cooper, J. (1985). Gender and computers: Two surveys of computer-related attitudes. Sex Roles, 13, 215-228.
146. Willis, S., & Kenway, J. (1986). On overcoming sexism in schooling: To marginalize or mainstream. Australian Journal of Education, 30, 132-149.
147. Word, C. O., Zanna, M. P., & Cooper, J. (1974). The nonverbal mediating of self-fulfilling prophecies in interracial interaction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 109-120.
148. Wright,R., & Jacobs,J.A. (1994). Male flight from computer work:Anew lookatresegregation and ghettoization. In J. A. Jacobs (Ed.), Gender inequality at work (pp. 334-378). London: Sage.
149. Young, D. J., & Fraser, B. J. (1990). Science achievement of girls in single-sex and co-educational schools. Research in Science and Technological Education, 8, 5-20.