The scare tactic: Do fear appeals predict motivation and exam scores?

School Psychology Quarterly

Volumn 29, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 503-516

  Putwain, David ^a   Remedios, Richard ^b  

^a EDGE HILL UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b DURHAM UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Academic performance; Extrinsic motivation; Fear appeals; Intrinsic motivation; Teacher behavior

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; EDUCATION; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; FEAR; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; MOTIVATION; PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION; PROCEDURES; PSYCHOLOGY; SELF CONCEPT; SELF REPORT; STUDENT; TEACHING; UNITED KINGDOM;

ADOLESCENT; EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; ENGLAND; FEAR; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MOTIVATION; PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION; SELF CONCEPT; SELF REPORT; STUDENTS; TEACHING;

EID: 84913581332     PISSN: 10453830     EISSN: 19391560     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/spq0000048     Document Type: Article

References (45)

1. Assor, A., Kaplan, H., Kanat-Maymon, Y., & Roth, G. (2005). Directly controlling teacher behaviours as predictors of poor motivation and engagement in girls and boys: The role of anger and anxiety. Learning and Instruction, 15, 397-413. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2005.07.008
2. Assor, A., Roth, G., & Deci, E. L. (2004). The emotional costs of perceived parents' conditional regard: A self-determination theory analysis. Journal of Personality, 72, 47-88. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00256.x
3. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freeman.
4. Bauer, D. J., Preacher, K. J., & Gil, K. M. (2006). Conceptualizing and testing random indirect effects and moderated mediation in multilevel models:New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 11, 142-163. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.11.2.142
5. Becker, M., McElvany, N., & Kortenbruck, M. (2010). Intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation as predictors of reading literacy: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 773-785. doi:10.1037/a0020084
6. Carbonneau, N., Vallerand, R. J., & Lafrenière, M. K. (2012). Towards a tripartite model of intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality, 80, 1147-1178. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00757.x
7. Chamberlain, S., Daly, A. L., & Spalding, V. (2011). The fear factor: Students' experiences of test anxiety when taking A-level examinations. Pastoral Care in Education, 29, 193-205. doi:10.1080/02643944.2011.599856
8. Connor, M. J. (2001). Pupil stress and standard assessment tests (SATS). Emotional & Behavioural Difficulties, 6, 103-111. doi:10.1177/1363275201006002004
9. Connor, M. J. (2003). Pupil stress and standard assessment tests (SATS): An update. Emotional & Behavioural Difficulties, 8, 101-107. doi:10.1177/13632752030082002
10. Covington, M. (1992). Making the grade: A selfworth perspective on motivation and school reform. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139173582
11. Covington, M., & Müeller, K. J. (2001). Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation: An approach/avoidance reformulation. Educational Psychology Review, 13, 157-176.
12. Danielsen, A. G., Samdal, O., Hetland, J., & Wold, B. (2009). School-related social support and students' perceived life satisfaction. The Journal of Educational Research, 102, 303-320. doi:10.3200/JOER.102.4.303-320
13. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. New York, NY: Plenum Press. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7
14. Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M., & Williams, G. C. (1996). Need satisfaction and the self-regulation of learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 8, 165-183. doi:10.1016/S1041-6080(96)90013-8
15. Eccles, J. S. (2007). Families, schools, and developing achievement related motivations and engagement. In J. E. Grusec and P. D. Hastings (Eds.), Handbook of socialization (pp. 665-691). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
16. Gillet, N., Vallerand, R. J., & Lafrenière, M. K. (2012). Intrinsic and extrinsic school motivation as a function of age: The mediating role of autonomy support. Social Psychology of Education, 15, 77-95. doi:10.1007/s11218-011-9170-2
17. Guay, F., & Vallerand, R. J. (1996-1997). Social context, students' motivation, and academic achievement: Toward a process model. Social Psychology of Education, 1, 211-233. doi:10.1007/BF02339891
18. Krull, J. L., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2001). Multilevel modeling of individual and group level mediated effects. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 36, 249-277. doi:10.1207/S15327906MBR3602_06
19. Lepper, M. R., Corpus, J. H., & Iyengar, S. S. (2005). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations in the classroom: Age differences and academic correlates. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 184-196. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.2.184
20. Lüdtke, O., Robitzsch, A., Trautwein, U., & Kunter, M. (2009). Assessing the impact of learning environments:How to use student ratings of classroom or school characteristics in multilevel modelling. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34, 120-131. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.12.001
21. MacKinnon, D. P., Fritz, M. S., Williams, J., & Lockwood, C. M. (2007). Distribution of the product confidence intervals for the indirect effect:Program PRODCLIN. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 384-389. doi:10.3758/BF03193007
22. Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (2003). Fear of failure:Friend or foe? Australian Psychologist, 38, 31-38. doi:10.1080/00050060310001706997
23. Putwain, D. W. (2009). Assessment and examination stress in Key Stage 4. British Educational Research Journal, 35, 391-411. doi:10.1080/01411920802044404
24. Putwain, D. W., Connors, E., Woods, K. A., & Nicholson, L. J. (2012). Stress and anxiety surrounding the Key Stage 2 Standard Assessment Tests in English schoolchildren. Pastoral Care in Education, 30, 289-302. doi:10.1080/02643944.2012.688063
25. Putwain, D. W., Kearsley, R., & Symes, W. (2012). Do creativity self-beliefs predict literacy achievement and motivation? Learning and Individual Differences, 22, 370-374. doi:10.1016/j.lindif .2011.12.001
26. Putwain, D. W., & Roberts, C. M. (2009). The development and validation of the Teachers Use of Fear Appeals Questionnaire. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 643-661. doi:10.1348/000709909X426130
27. Putwain, D. W., & Roberts, C. M. (2012). Fear and efficacy appeals in the classroom: The secondary teachers' perspective. Educational Psychology, 32, 355-372. doi:10.1080/01443410.2012.659845
28. Putwain, D. W., & Symes, W. (2011a). Teachers' use of fear appeals in the Mathematics classroom:Worrying or motivating students? British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 456-474. doi:10.1348/2044-8279.002005
29. Putwain, D. W., & Symes, W. (2011b). Classroom fear appeals and examination performance: Facilitating or debilitating outcomes? Learning and Individual Differences, 21, 227-232. doi:10.1016/j .lindif.2010.11.022
30. Ratelle, C. F., Guay, F., Vallerand, R. J., Larose, S., & Senécal, C. (2007). Autonomous, controlled, and amotivated types of academic motivation: A person-oriented analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 734-746. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.734
31. Reeve, J. (2009). Why teachers adopt a controlling motivating style towards students and how they can become more autonomy supportive. Educational Psychologist, 44, 159-175. doi:10.1080/00461520903028990
32. Ruiter, R. A. D., Abraham, C., & Kok, G. (2001). Scary warnings and rational precautions: A review of the psychology of fear appeals. Psychology & Health, 16, 613-630. doi:10.1080/08870440108405863
33. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
34. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). An overview of self-determination theory: An organismic-dialectical perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3-33). Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press.
35. Ryan, R. M., Sheldon, K. M., Kasser, T., & Deci, E. L. (1996). All goals are not created equal: An organismic perspective on the nature of goals and their regulation. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 7-26). New York: Guilford Press.
36. Skinner, E. A., & Belmont, M. J. (1993). Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behaviour and student engagement across the school year. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 571-581. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.85.4.571
37. Skinner, E., Furrer, C., Marchand, G., & Kindermann, T. (2008). Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: Part of a larger motivational dynamic? Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 765-781. doi:10.1037/a0012840
38. Smerecnik, C. M. R., & Ruiter, R. A. C. (2010). Fear appeals in HIV prevention: The role of anticipated regret. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 15, 550-559. doi:10.1080/13548506.2010.498888
39. Soenens, B., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2005). Antecedents and outcomes of self-determination in three life domains: The role of parents' and teachers' autonomy support. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 589-604. doi:10.1007/s10964-005-8948-y
40. Sprinkle, R., Hunt, S., Simonds, C., & Comadena, M. (2006). Fear in the classroom: An examination of teachers' use of fear appeals and students learning outcomes. Communication Education, 55, 389-402, doi:10.1080/03634520600879170
41. Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., Blais, M. R., Brière, N. M., Senécal, C., & Vallières, E. F. (1992). The academic motivation scale: A measure of intrinsic, extrinsic and amotivation in education. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52, 1003-1017. doi:10.1177/0013164492052004025
42. Vallerand, R. J., Fortier, M. S., & Guay, F. G. (1997). Self-determination and persistence in a real-life setting: Towards a motivation model of highschool drop-out. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1161-1176. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.5.1161
43. Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Sheldon, K. M., & Deci, E. L. (2004). Motivating learning, performance, and persistence: The synergistic role of intrinsic goals and autonomy support. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 246-260. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.2.246
44. Woolfolk Hoy, A., Hoy, W. K., & Davis, H. A. (2009). Teachers' self-efficacy beliefs. In K. R. Wentzel and A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation in school (pp. 627-653). New York, NY:Routledge.
45. Yi{dotless}ldi{dotless}ri{dotless}m, S. (2012). Teacher support, motivation, learning strategy use, and achievement: A multilevel mediation model. Journal of Experimental Education, 80, 150-172. doi:10.1080/00220973.2011.596855