Primary prevention of colorectal cancer: Myth or reality?

World Journal of Gastroenterology

Volumn 20, Issue 41, 2014, Pages 15060-15069

  Teixeira, Marcela Crosara ^a   Braghiroli, Maria Ignez ^a   Sabbaga, Jorge ^a   Hoff, Paulo M ^a  

^a HOSPITAL SÍRIO LIBANÊS   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Chemoprevention; Colorectal cancer; Diet; Physical activity; Primary prevention

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANTIOXIDANT; BISPHOSPHONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CALCIUM; FOLIC ACID; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; PYRIDOXINE; VITAMIN B GROUP; VITAMIN D; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT;

ARTICLE; CANCER HORMONE THERAPY; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER PREVENTION; COLORECTAL CANCER; DAIRY PRODUCT; DIETARY FIBER; FRUIT; HUMAN; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PRIMARY PREVENTION; RISK FACTOR; VEGETABLE; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION; WEIGHT GAIN; ADVERSE EFFECTS; COLORECTAL NEOPLASMS; DIET; DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE; DIETARY SUPPLEMENT; EXERCISE; FEMALE; INCIDENCE; LIFESTYLE; MALE; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PROCEDURES; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK REDUCTION; SEX DIFFERENCE;

ANTICARCINOGENIC AGENTS; COLORECTAL NEOPLASMS; DIET; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; EXERCISE; FEMALE; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; LIFE STYLE; MALE; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PRIMARY PREVENTION; RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCES; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; RISK REDUCTION BEHAVIOR; SEX FACTORS;

EID: 84912072684     PISSN: 10079327     EISSN: 22192840     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i41.15060     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. Chan AT, Giovannucci EL. Primary prevention of colorectal cancer. Gastroenterology 2010; 138: 2029-2043.e10 [PMID: 20420944 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2010.01.057]
2. Jänne PA, Mayer RJ. Chemoprevention of colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 1960-1968 [PMID: 10874065 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM200006293422606]
3. Renehan AG, Flood A, Adams KF, Olden M, Hollenbeck AR, Cross AJ, Leitzmann MF. Body mass index at different adult ages, weight change, and colorectal cancer risk in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Cohort. Am J Epidemiol 2012; 176: 1130-1140 [PMID: 23186750 DOI: 10.1093/aje/kws192]
4. Chan DS, Lau R, Aune D, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Kampman E, Norat T. Red and processed meat and colorectal cancer incidence: meta-analysis of prospective studies. PLoS One 2011; 6: e20456 [PMID: 21674008 DOI: 10.1371/journal. pone.0020456]
5. Gong J, Hutter C, Baron JA, Berndt S, Caan B, Campbell PT, Casey G, Chan AT, Cotterchio M, Fuchs CS, Gallinger S, Giovannucci E, Harrison T, Hayes R, Hsu L, Jiao S, Lin Y, Lindor NM, Newcomb P, Pflugeisen B, Phipps AI, Rohan T, Schoen R, Seminara D, Slattery ML, Stelling D, Thomas F, Warnick G, White E, Potter J, Peters U. A pooled analysis of smoking and colorectal cancer: timing of exposure and interactions with environmental factors. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2012; 21: 1974-1985 [PMID: 23001243 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-12-0692]
6. Fedirko V, Tramacere I, Bagnardi V, Rota M, Scotti L, Islami F, Negri E, Straif K, Romieu I, La Vecchia C, Boffetta P, Jenab M. Alcohol drinking and colorectal cancer risk: an overall and dose-response meta-analysis of published studies. Ann Oncol 2011; 22: 1958-1972 [PMID: 21307158 DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdq653]
7. Wolin KY, Carson K, Colditz GA. Obesity and cancer. Oncologist 2010; 15: 556-565 [PMID: 20507889 DOI: 10.1634/theoncologist. 2009-0285]
8. Wolin KY, Yan Y, Colditz GA, Lee IM. Physical activity and colon cancer prevention: a meta-analysis. Br J Cancer 2009; 100: 611-616 [PMID: 19209175 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6604917]
9. Wolin KY, Tuchman H. Physical activity and gastrointestinal cancer prevention. Recent Results Cancer Res 2011; 186: 73-100 [PMID: 21113761 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-04231-7-4]
10. Boyle T, Keegel T, Bull F, Heyworth J, Fritschi L. Physical activity and risks of proximal and distal colon cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst 2012; 104: 1548-1561 [PMID: 22914790 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djs354]
11. Kim YI, Mason JB. Nutrition chemoprevention of gastrointestinal cancers: a critical review. Nutr Rev 1996; 54: 259-279 [PMID: 9009668]
12. Terry P, Giovannucci E, Michels KB, Bergkvist L, Hansen H, Holmberg L, Wolk A. Fruit, vegetables, dietary fiber, and risk of colorectal cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001; 93: 525-533 [PMID: 11287446 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/93.7.525]
13. Michels KB, Edward Giovannucci KJ, Rosner BA, Stampfer MJ, Fuchs CS, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, Willett WC. Prospective study of fruit and vegetable consumption and incidence of colon and rectal cancers. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92: 1740-1752 [PMID: 11058617 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/92.21.1740]
14. Koushik A, Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, Beeson WL, van den Brandt PA, Buring JE, Calle EE, Cho E, Fraser GE, Freudenheim JL, Fuchs CS, Giovannucci EL, Goldbohm RA, Harnack L, Jacobs DR, Kato I, Krogh V, Larsson SC, Leitzmann MF, Marshall JR, McCullough ML, Miller AB, Pietinen P, Rohan TE, Schatzkin A, Sieri S, Virtanen MJ, Wolk A, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Zhang SM, Smith-Warner SA. Fruits, vegetables, and colon cancer risk in a pooled analysis of 14 cohort studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007; 99: 1471-1483 [PMID: 17895473 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djm155]
15. Lee JE, Chan AT. Fruit, vegetables, and folate: cultivating the evidence for cancer prevention. Gastroenterology 2011; 141: 16-20 [PMID: 21620843 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2011.05.020]
16. Aune D, Lau R, Chan DS, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Kampman E, Norat T. Nonlinear reduction in risk for colorectal cancer by fruit and vegetable intake based on meta-analysis of prospective studies. Gastroenterology 2011; 141: 106-118 [PMID: 21600207 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2011.04.013]
17. Kritchevsky D. Epidemiology of fibre, resistant starch and colorectal cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev 1995; 4: 345-352 [PMID: 7496322]
18. Negri E, Franceschi S, Parpinel M, La Vecchia C. Fiber intake and risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1998; 7: 667-671 [PMID: 9718218]
19. Peters U, Sinha R, Chatterjee N, Subar AF, Ziegler RG, Kulldorff M, Bresalier R, Weissfeld JL, Flood A, Schatzkin A, Hayes RB. Dietary fibre and colorectal adenoma in a colorectal cancer early detection programme. Lancet 2003; 361: 1491-1495 [PMID: 12737857 DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13173-X]
20. Bingham SA, Day NE, Luben R, Ferrari P, Slimani N, Norat T, Clavel-Chapelon F, Kesse E, Nieters A, Boeing H, Tjønneland A, Overvad K, Martinez C, Dorronsoro M, Gonzalez CA, Key TJ, Trichopoulou A, Naska A, Vineis P, Tumino R, Krogh V, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Peeters PH, Berglund G, Hallmans G, Lund E, Skeie G, Kaaks R, Riboli E. Dietary fibre in food and protection against colorectal cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC): an observational study. Lancet 2003; 361: 1496-1501 [PMID: 12737858 DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13174-1]
21. Larsson SC, Giovannucci E, Bergkvist L, Wolk A. Whole grain consumption and risk of colorectal cancer: a population- based cohort of 60,000 women. Br J Cancer 2005; 92: 1803-1807 [PMID: 15827552 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6602543]
22. Park Y, Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, Bergkvist L, Berrino F, van den Brandt PA, Buring JE, Colditz GA, Freudenheim JL, Fuchs CS, Giovannucci E, Goldbohm RA, Graham S, Harnack L, Hartman AM, Jacobs DR, Kato I, Krogh V, Leitzmann MF, McCullough ML, Miller AB, Pietinen P, Rohan TE, Schatzkin A, Willett WC, Wolk A, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Zhang SM, Smith-Warner SA. Dietary fiber intake and risk of colorectal cancer: a pooled analysis of prospective cohort studies. JAMA 2005; 294: 2849-2857 [PMID: 16352792 DOI: 10.1001/jama.294.22.2849]
23. Alberts DS, Martínez ME, Roe DJ, Guillén-Rodríguez JM, Marshall JR, van Leeuwen JB, Reid ME, Ritenbaugh C, Vargas PA, Bhattacharyya AB, Earnest DL, Sampliner RE. Lack of effect of a high-fiber cereal supplement on the recurrence of colorectal adenomas. Phoenix Colon Cancer Prevention Physicians' Network. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 1156-1162 [PMID: 10770980 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM200004203421602]
24. Schatzkin A, Lanza E, Corle D, Lance P, Iber F, Caan B, Shike M, Weissfeld J, Burt R, Cooper MR, Kikendall JW, Cahill J. Lack of effect of a low-fat, high-fiber diet on the recurrence of colorectal adenomas. Polyp Prevention Trial Study Group. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 1149-1155 [PMID: 10770979 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM200004203421601]
25. Young GP, Le Leu RK. Resistant starch and colorectal neoplasia. J AOAC Int 2004; 87: 775-786 [PMID: 15287679]
26. Mathers JC, Movahedi M, Macrae F, Mecklin JP, Moeslein G, Olschwang S, Eccles D, Evans G, Maher ER, Bertario L, Bisgaard ML, Dunlop M, Ho JW, Hodgson S, Lindblom A, Lubinski J, Morrison PJ, Murday V, Ramesar R, Side L, Scott RJ, Thomas HJ, Vasen H, Gerdes AM, Barker G, Crawford G, Elliott F, Pylvanainen K, Wijnen J, Fodde R, Lynch H, Bishop DT, Burn J. Long-term effect of resistant starch on cancer risk in carriers of hereditary colorectal cancer: an analysis from the CAPP2 randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol 2012; 13: 1242-1249 [PMID: 23140761 DOI: 10.1016/S1470-2045(12)70475-8]
27. Martinez M, Cuskelly GJ, Williamson J, Toth JP, Gregory JF. Vitamin B-6 deficiency in rats reduces hepatic serine hydroxymethyltransferase and cystathionine beta-synthase activities and rates of in vivo protein turnover, homocysteine remethylation and transsulfuration. J Nutr 2000; 130: 1115-1123 [PMID: 10801907]
28. Choi SW, Mason JB. Folate and carcinogenesis: an integrated scheme. J Nutr 2000; 130: 129-132 [PMID: 10720158]
29. Schernhammer ES, Ogino S, Fuchs CS. Folate and vitamin B6 intake and risk of colon cancer in relation to p53 expression. Gastroenterology 2008; 135: 770-780 [PMID: 18619459 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2008.06.033]
30. Lee JE, Willett WC, Fuchs CS, Smith-Warner SA, Wu K, Ma J, Giovannucci E. Folate intake and risk of colorectal cancer and adenoma: modification by time. Am J Clin Nutr 2011; 93: 817-825 [PMID: 21270374 DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.110.007781]
31. Sanjoaquin MA, Allen N, Couto E, Roddam AW, Key TJ. Folate intake and colorectal cancer risk: a meta-analytical approach. Int J Cancer 2005; 113: 825-828 [PMID: 15499620 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.20648]
32. Ulvik A, Evensen ET, Lien EA, Hoff G, Vollset SE, Majak BM, Ueland PM. Smoking, folate and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase status as interactive determinants of adenomatous and hyperplastic polyps of colorectum. Am J Med Genet 2001; 101: 246-254 [PMID: 11424140 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.1370]
33. Cole BF, Baron JA, Sandler RS, Haile RW, Ahnen DJ, Bresalier RS, McKeown-Eyssen G, Summers RW, Rothstein RI, Burke CA, Snover DC, Church TR, Allen JI, Robertson DJ, Beck GJ, Bond JH, Byers T, Mandel JS, Mott LA, Pearson LH, Barry EL, Rees JR, Marcon N, Saibil F, Ueland PM, Greenberg ER. Folic acid for the prevention of colorectal adenomas: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2007; 297: 2351-2359 [PMID: 17551129 DOI: 10.1001/jama.297.21.2351]
34. Logan RF, Grainge MJ, Shepherd VC, Armitage NC, Muir KR. Aspirin and folic acid for the prevention of recurrent colorectal adenomas. Gastroenterology 2008; 134: 29-38 [PMID: 18022173 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2007.10.014]
35. Mason JB, Dickstein A, Jacques PF, Haggarty P, Selhub J, Dallal G, Rosenberg IH. A temporal association between folic acid fortification and an increase in colorectal cancer rates may be illuminating important biological principles: a hypothesis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007; 16: 1325-1329 [PMID: 17626997 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-07-0329]
36. Wu K, Platz EA, Willett WC, Fuchs CS, Selhub J, Rosner BA, Hunter DJ, Giovannucci E. A randomized trial on folic acid supplementation and risk of recurrent colorectal adenoma. Am J Clin Nutr 2009; 90: 1623-1631 [PMID: 19864409 DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.28319]
37. Zhang SM, Moore SC, Lin J, Cook NR, Manson JE, Lee IM, Buring JE. Folate, vitamin B6, multivitamin supplements, and colorectal cancer risk in women. Am J Epidemiol 2006; 163: 108-115 [PMID: 16339055 DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwj016]
38. de Vogel S, Dindore V, van Engeland M, Goldbohm RA, van den Brandt PA, Weijenberg MP. Dietary folate, methionine, riboflavin, and vitamin B-6 and risk of sporadic colorectal cancer. J Nutr 2008; 138: 2372-2378 [PMID: 19022960 DOI: 10.3945/jn.108.091157]
39. Larsson SC, Orsini N, Wolk A. Vitamin B6 and risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. JAMA 2010; 303: 1077-1083 [PMID: 20233826 DOI: 10.1001/jama.2010.263]
40. Bouillon R, Eelen G, Verlinden L, Mathieu C, Carmeliet G, Verstuyf A. Vitamin D and cancer. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2006; 102: 156-162 [PMID: 17113979 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2006.09.014]
41. Byers SW, Rowlands T, Beildeck M, Bong YS. Mechanism of action of vitamin D and the vitamin D receptor in colorectal cancer prevention and treatment. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2012; 13: 31-38 [PMID: 21861107 DOI: 10.1007/s11154-011-9196-y]
42. Giovannucci E. The epidemiology of vitamin D and cancer incidence and mortality: a review (United States). Cancer Causes Control 2005; 16: 83-95 [PMID: 15868450 DOI: 10.1007/s10552-004-1661-4]
43. Chung M, Lee J, Terasawa T, Lau J, Trikalinos TA. Vitamin D with or without calcium supplementation for prevention of cancer and fractures: an updated meta-analysis for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2011; 155: 827-838 [PMID: 22184690 DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-155-12-201 112200-00005]
44. Gorham ED, Garland CF, Garland FC, Grant WB, Mohr SB, Lipkin M, Newmark HL, Giovannucci E, Wei M, Holick MF. Vitamin D and prevention of colorectal cancer. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2005; 97: 179-194 [PMID: 16236494 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2005.06.018]
45. Wactawski-Wende J, Kotchen JM, Anderson GL, Assaf AR, Brunner RL, O'Sullivan MJ, Margolis KL, Ockene JK, Phillips L, Pottern L, Prentice RL, Robbins J, Rohan TE, Sarto GE, Sharma S, Stefanick ML, Van Horn L, Wallace RB, Whitlock E, Bassford T, Beresford SA, Black HR, Bonds DE, Brzyski RG, Caan B, Chlebowski RT, Cochrane B, Garland C, Gass M, Hays J, Heiss G, Hendrix SL, Howard BV, Hsia J, Hubbell FA, Jackson RD, Johnson KC, Judd H, Kooperberg CL, Kuller LH, LaCroix AZ, Lane DS, Langer RD, Lasser NL, Lewis CE, Limacher MC, Manson JE. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 684-696 [PMID: 16481636 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa055222]
46. Newmark HL, Wargovich MJ, Bruce WR. Colon cancer and dietary fat, phosphate, and calcium: a hypothesis. J Natl Cancer Inst 1984; 72: 1323-1325 [PMID: 6587152]
47. Baron JA, Beach M, Mandel JS, van Stolk RU, Haile RW, Sandler RS, Rothstein R, Summers RW, Snover DC, Beck GJ, Bond JH, Greenberg ER. Calcium supplements for the prevention of colorectal adenomas. Calcium Polyp Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 101-107 [PMID: 9887161 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199901143400204]
48. Wu K, Willett WC, Fuchs CS, Colditz GA, Giovannucci EL. Calcium intake and risk of colon cancer in women and men. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002; 94: 437-446 [PMID: 11904316 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/94.6.437]
49. Cho E, Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, Beeson WL, van den Brandt PA, Colditz GA, Folsom AR, Fraser GE, Freudenheim JL, Giovannucci E, Goldbohm RA, Graham S, Miller AB, Pietinen P, Potter JD, Rohan TE, Terry P, Toniolo P, Virtanen MJ, Willett WC, Wolk A, Wu K, Yaun SS, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Hunter DJ. Dairy foods, calcium, and colorectal cancer: a pooled analysis of 10 cohort studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004; 96: 1015-1022 [PMID: 15240785 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djh185]
50. Shaukat A, Scouras N, Schünemann HJ. Role of supplemental calcium in the recurrence of colorectal adenomas: a metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Gastroenterol 2005; 100: 390-394 [PMID: 15667497 DOI: 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.41220.x]
51. Aune D, Lau R, Chan DS, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Kampman E, Norat T. Dairy products and colorectal cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Ann Oncol 2012; 23: 37-45 [PMID: 21617020 DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdr269]
52. Pietinen P, Malila N, Virtanen M, Hartman TJ, Tangrea JA, Albanes D, Virtamo J. Diet and risk of colorectal cancer in a cohort of Finnish men. Cancer Causes Control 1999; 10: 387-396 [PMID: 10530608]
53. Norat T, Bingham S, Ferrari P, Slimani N, Jenab M, Mazuir M, Overvad K, Olsen A, Tjønneland A, Clavel F, Boutron-Ruault MC, Kesse E, Boeing H, Bergmann MM, Nieters A, Linseisen J, Trichopoulou A, Trichopoulos D, Tountas Y, Berrino F, Palli D, Panico S, Tumino R, Vineis P, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Peeters PH, Engeset D, Lund E, Skeie G, Ardanaz E, González C, Navarro C, Quirós JR, Sanchez MJ, Berglund G, Mattisson I, Hallmans G, Palmqvist R, Day NE, Khaw KT, Key TJ, San Joaquin M, Hémon B, Saracci R, Kaaks R, Riboli E. Meat, fish, and colorectal cancer risk: the European Prospective Investigation into cancer and nutrition. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005; 97: 906-916 [PMID: 15956652 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/dji164]
54. Kampman E, Verhoeven D, Sloots L, van 't Veer P. Vegetable and animal products as determinants of colon cancer risk in Dutch men and women. Cancer Causes Control 1995; 6: 225-234 [PMID: 7612802]
55. Wu S, Feng B, Li K, Zhu X, Liang S, Liu X, Han S, Wang B, Wu K, Miao D, Liang J, Fan D. Fish consumption and colorectal cancer risk in humans: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Med 2012; 125: 551-559.e5 [PMID: 22513196 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2012.01.022]
56. West NJ, Clark SK, Phillips RK, Hutchinson JM, Leicester RJ, Belluzzi A, Hull MA. Eicosapentaenoic acid reduces rectal polyp number and size in familial adenomatous polyposis. Gut 2010; 59: 918-925 [PMID: 20348368 DOI: 10.1136/gut.2009.200642]
57. Kune GA, Kune S, Watson LF. Colorectal cancer risk, chronic illnesses, operations, and medications: case control results from the Melbourne Colorectal Cancer Study. Cancer Res 1988; 48: 4399-4404 [PMID: 3390835]
58. Dubé C, Rostom A, Lewin G, Tsertsvadze A, Barrowman N, Code C, Sampson M, Moher D. The use of aspirin for primary prevention of colorectal cancer: a systematic review prepared for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2007; 146: 365-375 [PMID: 17339622 DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-146-5-200703060-00009]
59. Grau MV, Sandler RS, McKeown-Eyssen G, Bresalier RS, Haile RW, Barry EL, Ahnen DJ, Gui J, Summers RW, Baron JA. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use after 3 years of aspirin use and colorectal adenoma risk: observational follow-up of a randomized study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2009; 101: 267-276 [PMID: 19211442 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djn484]
60. Rothwell PM, Fowkes FG, Belch JF, Ogawa H, Warlow CP, Meade TW. Effect of daily aspirin on long-term risk of death due to cancer: analysis of individual patient data from randomised trials. Lancet 2011; 377: 31-41 [PMID: 21144578 DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)62110-1]
61. Baron JA, Cole BF, Sandler RS, Haile RW, Ahnen D, Bresalier R, McKeown-Eyssen G, Summers RW, Rothstein R, Burke CA, Snover DC, Church TR, Allen JI, Beach M, Beck GJ, Bond JH, Byers T, Greenberg ER, Mandel JS, Marcon N, Mott LA, Pearson L, Saibil F, van Stolk RU. A randomized trial of aspirin to prevent colorectal adenomas. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 891-899 [PMID: 12621133 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa021735]
62. Sandler RS, Halabi S, Baron JA, Budinger S, Paskett E, Keresztes R, Petrelli N, Pipas JM, Karp DD, Loprinzi CL, Steinbach G, Schilsky R. A randomized trial of aspirin to prevent colorectal adenomas in patients with previous colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 883-890 [PMID: 12621132 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa021633]
63. Benamouzig R, Uzzan B, Deyra J, Martin A, Girard B, Little J, Chaussade S. Prevention by daily soluble aspirin of colorectal adenoma recurrence: 4-year results of the APACC randomised trial. Gut 2012; 61: 255-261 [PMID: 21890814 DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2011-300113]
64. Cole BF, Logan RF, Halabi S, Benamouzig R, Sandler RS, Grainge MJ, Chaussade S, Baron JA. Aspirin for the chemoprevention of colorectal adenomas: meta-analysis of the randomized trials. J Natl Cancer Inst 2009; 101: 256-266 [PMID: 19211452 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djn485]
65. Rothwell PM, Wilson M, Elwin CE, Norrving B, Algra A, Warlow CP, Meade TW. Long-term effect of aspirin on colorectal cancer incidence and mortality: 20-year follow-up of five randomised trials. Lancet 2010; 376: 1741-1750 [PMID: 20970847 DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61543-7]
66. Burn J, Gerdes AM, Macrae F, Mecklin JP, Moeslein G, Olschwang S, Eccles D, Evans DG, Maher ER, Bertario L, Bisgaard ML, Dunlop MG, Ho JW, Hodgson SV, Lindblom A, Lubinski J, Morrison PJ, Murday V, Ramesar R, Side L, Scott RJ, Thomas HJ, Vasen HF, Barker G, Crawford G, Elliott F, Movahedi M, Pylvanainen K, Wijnen JT, Fodde R, Lynch HT, Mathers JC, Bishop DT. Long-term effect of aspirin on cancer risk in carriers of hereditary colorectal cancer: an analysis from the CAPP2 randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2011; 378: 2081-2087 [PMID: 22036019 DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61049-0]
67. Breuer-Katschinski B, Nemes K, Rump B, Leiendecker B, Marr A, Breuer N, Goebell H. Long-term use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and the risk of colorectal adenomas. The Colorectal Adenoma Study Group. Digestion 2000; 61: 129-134 [PMID: 10705177 DOI: 10.1159/000007745]
68. Friis S, Poulsen AH, Sørensen HT, Tjønneland A, Overvad K, Vogel U, McLaughlin JK, Blot WJ, Olsen JH. Aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and risk of colorectal cancer: a Danish cohort study. Cancer Causes Control 2009; 20: 731-740 [PMID: 19122977 DOI: 10.1007/s10552-008-9286-7]
69. Arber N, Eagle CJ, Spicak J, Rácz I, Dite P, Hajer J, Zavoral M, Lechuga MJ, Gerletti P, Tang J, Rosenstein RB, Macdonald K, Bhadra P, Fowler R, Wittes J, Zauber AG, Solomon SD, Levin B. Celecoxib for the prevention of colorectal adenomatous polyps. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 885-895 [PMID: 16943401 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa061652]
70. Baron JA, Sandler RS, Bresalier RS, Quan H, Riddell R, Lanas A, Bolognese JA, Oxenius B, Horgan K, Loftus S, Morton DG. A randomized trial of rofecoxib for the chemoprevention of colorectal adenomas. Gastroenterology 2006; 131: 1674-1682 [PMID: 17087947 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2006.08.079]
71. Bertagnolli MM, Eagle CJ, Zauber AG, Redston M, Solomon SD, Kim K, Tang J, Rosenstein RB, Wittes J, Corle D, Hess TM, Woloj GM, Boisserie F, Anderson WF, Viner JL, Bagheri D, Burn J, Chung DC, Dewar T, Foley TR, Hoffman N, Macrae F, Pruitt RE, Saltzman JR, Salzberg B, Sylwestrowicz T, Gordon GB, Hawk ET. Celecoxib for the prevention of sporadic colorectal adenomas. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 873-884 [PMID: 16943400 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa061355]
72. Meyskens FL, McLaren CE, Pelot D, Fujikawa-Brooks S, Carpenter PM, Hawk E, Kelloff G, Lawson MJ, Kidao J, Mc-Cracken J, Albers CG, Ahnen DJ, Turgeon DK, Goldschmid S, Lance P, Hagedorn CH, Gillen DL, Gerner EW. Difluoromethylornithine plus sulindac for the prevention of sporadic colorectal adenomas: a randomized placebo-controlled, double- blind trial. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2008; 1: 32-38 [PMID: 18841250 DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-08-0042]
73. Maxwell SR. Antioxidant vitamin supplements: update of their potential benefits and possible risks. Drug Saf 1999; 21: 253-266 [PMID: 10514018]
74. Freudenheim JL, Graham S, Marshall JR, Haughey BP, Wilkinson G. A case-control study of diet and rectal cancer in western New York. Am J Epidemiol 1990; 131: 612-624 [PMID: 2156419]
75. Chiu BC, Ji BT, Dai Q, Gridley G, McLaughlin JK, Gao YT, Fraumeni JF, Chow WH. Dietary factors and risk of colon cancer in Shanghai, China. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2003; 12: 201-208 [PMID: 12646508]
76. Lippman SM, Klein EA, Goodman PJ, Lucia MS, Thompson IM, Ford LG, Parnes HL, Minasian LM, Gaziano JM, Hartline JA, Parsons JK, Bearden JD, Crawford ED, Goodman GE, Claudio J, Winquist E, Cook ED, Karp DD, Walther P, Lieber MM, Kristal AR, Darke AK, Arnold KB, Ganz PA, Santella RM, Albanes D, Taylor PR, Probstfield JL, Jagpal TJ, Crowley JJ, Meyskens FL, Baker LH, Coltman CA. Effect of selenium and vitamin E on risk of prostate cancer and other cancers: the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT). JAMA 2009; 301: 39-51 [PMID: 19066370 DOI: 10.1001/jama.2008.864]
77. Greenberg ER, Baron JA, Tosteson TD, Freeman DH, Beck GJ, Bond JH, Colacchio TA, Coller JA, Frankl HD, Haile RW. A clinical trial of antioxidant vitamins to prevent colorectal adenoma. Polyp Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 141-147 [PMID: 8008027 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199407213310301]
78. Bjelakovic G, Nagorni A, Nikolova D, Simonetti RG, Bjelakovic M, Gluud C. Meta-analysis: antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention of colorectal adenoma. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2006; 24: 281-291 [PMID: 16842454 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.02970.x]
79. Graaf MR, Beiderbeck AB, Egberts AC, Richel DJ, Guchelaar HJ. The risk of cancer in users of statins. J Clin Oncol 2004; 22: 2388-2394 [PMID: 15197200 DOI: 10.1200/JCO.2004.02.027]
80. Pedersen TR, Berg K, Cook TJ, Faergeman O, Haghfelt T, Kjekshus J, Miettinen T, Musliner TA, Olsson AG, Pyörälä K, Thorgeirsson G, Tobert JA, Wedel H, Wilhelmsen L. Safety and tolerability of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin during 5 years in the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study. Arch Intern Med 1996; 156: 2085-2092 [PMID: 8862101 DOI: 10.1001/archinte.1996.00440170097011]
81. Sacks FM, Pfeffer MA, Moye LA, Rouleau JL, Rutherford JD, Cole TG, Brown L, Warnica JW, Arnold JM, Wun CC, Davis BR, Braunwald E. The effect of pravastatin on coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. Cholesterol and Recurrent Events Trial investigators. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 1001-1009 [PMID: 8801446 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199610033351401]
82. Emberson JR, Kearney PM, Blackwell L, Newman C, Reith C, Bhala N, Holland L, Peto R, Keech A, Collins R, Simes J, Baigent C. Lack of effect of lowering LDL cholesterol on cancer: meta-analysis of individual data from 175,000 people in 27 randomised trials of statin therapy. PLoS One 2012; 7: e29849 [PMID: 22276132 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029849]
83. Santini D, Virzi V, Fratto ME, Bertoldo F, Sabbatini R, Berardi R, Calipari N, Ottaviani D, Ibrahim T. Can we consider zoledronic acid a new antitumor agent? Recent evidence in clinical setting. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 2010; 10: 46-54 [PMID: 20088792 DOI: 10.2174/156800910790980223]
84. Sewing L, Steinberg F, Schmidt H, Göke R. The bisphosphonate zoledronic acid inhibits the growth of HCT-116 colon carcinoma cells and induces tumor cell apoptosis. Apoptosis 2008; 13: 782-789 [PMID: 18437576 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-008-0211-z]
85. Rennert G, Pinchev M, Rennert HS, Gruber SB. Use of bisphosphonates and reduced risk of colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 2011; 29: 1146-1150 [PMID: 21321296 DOI: 10.1200/JCO.2010.33.7485]
86. Singh H, Nugent Z, Demers A, Mahmud S, Bernstein C. Exposure to bisphosphonates and risk of colorectal cancer: a population-based nested case-control study. Cancer 2012; 118: 1236-1243 [PMID: 21823104 DOI: 10.1002/cncr.26395]
87. Thosani N, Thosani SN, Kumar S, Nugent Z, Jimenez C, Singh H, Guha S. Reduced risk of colorectal cancer with use of oral bisphosphonates: a systematic review and metaanalysis. J Clin Oncol 2013; 31: 623-630 [PMID: 23269990 DOI: 10.1200/JCO.2012.42.9530]
88. Khalili H, Huang ES, Ogino S, Fuchs CS, Chan AT. A prospective study of bisphosphonate use and risk of colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 2012; 30: 3229-3233 [PMID: 22649131 DOI: 10.1200/JCO.2011.39.2670]
89. Dornschneider G, Izbicki JR, Wilker DK, Schweiberer L. The effects of sex steroids on colon carcinogenesis. Anticancer Drugs 1990; 1: 15-21 [PMID: 2131030]
90. Grodstein F, Martinez ME, Platz EA, Giovannucci E, Colditz GA, Kautzky M, Fuchs C, Stampfer MJ. Postmenopausal hormone use and risk for colorectal cancer and adenoma. Ann Intern Med 1998; 128: 705-712 [PMID: 9556463 DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-128-9-199805010-00001]
91. Grodstein F, Newcomb PA, Stampfer MJ. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and the risk of colorectal cancer: a review and meta-analysis. Am J Med 1999; 106: 574-582 [PMID: 10335731 DOI: 10.1016/S0002-9343(99)00063-7]
92. Hébert-Croteau N. A meta-analysis of hormone replacement therapy and colon cancer in women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1998; 7: 653-659 [PMID: 9718216]
93. Chlebowski RT, Wactawski-Wende J, Ritenbaugh C, Hubbell FA, Ascensao J, Rodabough RJ, Rosenberg CA, Taylor VM, Harris R, Chen C, Adams-Campbell LL, White E. Estrogen plus progestin and colorectal cancer in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 2004; 350: 991-1004 [PMID: 14999111 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa032071]
94. Simon MS, Chlebowski RT, Wactawski-Wende J, Johnson KC, Muskovitz A, Kato I, Young A, Hubbell FA, Prentice RL. Estrogen plus progestin and colorectal cancer incidence and mortality. J Clin Oncol 2012; 30: 3983-3990 [PMID: 23008295 DOI: 10.1200/JCO.2012.42.7732]
95. Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, LaCroix AZ, Kooperberg C, Stefanick ML, Jackson RD, Beresford SA, Howard BV, Johnson KC, Kotchen JM, Ockene J. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results From the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002; 288: 321-333 [PMID: 12117397 DOI: 10.1001/jama.288.3.321]