Mechanisms of vascular calcification and associated diseases

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 20, Issue 37, 2014, Pages 5801-5810

  Marulanda, Juliana ^a   Alqarni, Saleh ^b   Murshed, Monzur ^a,b  

^a MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b SHRINERS HOSPITAL FOR CHILDREN   (Canada)

Author keywords

Animal models; Extracellular matrix mineralization; Mineralization inhibitors; Vascular calcification

Indexed keywords

BISPHOSPHONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CALCIUM ION; FETUIN A; LANTHANUM CARBONATE; PHOSPHATE; PHOSPHATE BINDING AGENT; PYROPHOSPHATE; RECEPTOR ACTIVATOR OF NUCLEAR FACTOR KAPPA B; SEVELAMER; SUCROFERRIC OXYHYDROXIDE;

ARTERY CALCIFICATION; ARTERY WALL; ARTICLE; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLOOD VESSEL CALCIFICATION; BONE MINERALIZATION; CELL TRANSDIFFERENTIATION; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; DISEASE COURSE; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX; HUMAN; HYPERPHOSPHATEMIA; HYPOPHOSPHATEMIA; INFLAMMATION; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NONHUMAN; OSTEOPOROSIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PSEUDOXANTHOMA ELASTICUM; VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE; DIABETES MELLITUS; METABOLISM; RENAL INSUFFICIENCY, CHRONIC; VASCULAR CALCIFICATION;

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; DIABETES MELLITUS; HUMANS; RENAL INSUFFICIENCY, CHRONIC; VASCULAR CALCIFICATION;

EID: 84911484535     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: 18734286     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1381612820666140212205848     Document Type: Article

References (114)

1. Speer MY, Giachelli CM. Regulation of cardiovascular calcification. Cardiovascular pathology: the official J Soc Cardiovascular Pathol 2004; 13(2): 63-70.
2. Shanahan CM, Crouthamel MH, Kapustin A, Giachelli CM. Arterial calcification in chronic kidney disease: key roles for calcium and phosphate. Circulation Res 2011; 109(6): 697-711.
3. Kramer CK, Zinman B, Gross JL, et al. Coronary artery calcium score prediction of all cause mortality and cardiovascular events in people with type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis. Bmj 2013; 346: f1654.
4. Valdivielso JM. Vascular calcification: types and mechanisms. Nefrologia: publicacion oficial de la Sociedad Espanola Nefrologia 2011; 31(2): 142-7.
5. Murshed M, Harmey D, Millan JL, McKee MD, Karsenty G. Unique coexpression in osteoblasts of broadly expressed genes accounts for the spatial restriction of ECM mineralization to bone. Genes Development 2005; 19(9): 1093-104.
6. Murshed M, McKee MD. Molecular determinants of extracellular matrix mineralization in bone and blood vessels. Currt Opinion Nephrol Hypertension 2010; 19(4): 359-65.
7. Vattikuti R, Towler DA. Osteogenic regulation of vascular calcification: an early perspective. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metabol 2004; 286(5): E686-96.
8. Doherty TM, Fitzpatrick LA, Shaheen A, Rajavashisth TB, Detrano RC. Genetic determinants of arterial calcification associated with atherosclerosis. Mayo Clinic Proc Mayo Clinic 2004; 79(2): 197-210.
9. Towler DA, Demer LL. Thematic series on the pathobiology of vascular calcification: an introduction. Circulation Res 2011; 108(11): 1378-80.
10. Stewart BF, Siscovick D, Lind BK, et al. Clinical factors associated with calcific aortic valve disease. Cardiovascular Health Study. J Am College Cardiol 1997; 29(3): 630-4.
11. O'Brien KD. Epidemiology and genetics of calcific aortic valve disease. Journal of investigative medicine: the official publication of the American Federation Clinical Res 2007; 55(6): 284-91.
12. Cohen GF, Vyas NS. Sodium thiosulfate in the treatment of calciphylaxis. J Clinical Aesthetic Dermatol 2013; 6(5): 41-4.
13. Shao JS, Cai J, Towler DA. Molecular mechanisms of vascular calcification: lessons learned from the aorta. Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, vascular Biol 2006; 26(7): 1423-30.
14. Bachra BN, Fischer HR. Recalcification of decalcified bone collagen in vitro as a model for biologic calcification. Calcified tissue Res 1968: Suppl: 7.
15. Eicher EM, Southard JL, Scriver CR, Glorieux FH. Hypophosphatemia: mouse model for human familial hypophosphatemic (vitamin D-resistant) rickets. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1976; 73(12): 4667-71.
16. Henthorn PS, Raducha M, Fedde KN, Lafferty MA, Whyte MP. Different missense mutations at the tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase gene locus in autosomal recessively inherited forms of mild and severe hypophosphatasia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89(20): 9924-8.
17. A gene (PEX) with homologies to endopeptidases is mutated in patients with X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets. The HYP Consortium. Nature Genet 1995; 11(2): 130-6.
18. Fedde KN, Blair L, Silverstein J, et al. Alkaline phosphatase knock-out mice recapitulate the metabolic and skeletal defects of infantile hypophosphatasia. Journal of bone and mineral research: the official J American Society Bone Mineral Res 1999; 14(12): 2015-26.
19. de Oliveira RB, Okazaki H, Stinghen AE, Drueke TB, Massy ZA, Jorgetti V. Vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease: a review. Jornal brasileiro de nefrologia: 'orgao oficial de Sociedades Brasileira e Latino-Americana de Nefrologia 2013; 35(2): 147-61.
20. Reynolds JL, Joannides AJ, Skepper JN, et al. Human vascular smooth muscle cells undergo vesicle-mediated calcification in response to changes in extracellular calcium and phosphate concentrations: a potential mechanism for accelerated vascular calcification in ESRD. J Am Soc Nephrol: JASN 2004; 15(11): 2857-67.
21. Shimada T, Mizutani S, Muto T, et al. Cloning and characterization of FGF23 as a causative factor of tumor-induced osteomalacia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001; 98(11): 6500-5.
22. Urakawa I, Yamazaki Y, Shimada T, et al. Klotho converts canonical FGF receptor into a specific receptor for FGF23. Nature 2006; 444(7120): 770-4.
23. Bai X, Miao D, Li J, Goltzman D, Karaplis AC. Transgenic mice overexpressing human fibroblast growth factor 23 (R176Q) delineate a putative role for parathyroid hormone in renal phosphate wasting disorders. Endocrinology 2004; 145(11): 5269-79.
24. Lampropoulos CE, Papaioannou I, D'Cruz DP. Osteoporosis--a risk factor for cardiovascular disease? Nature Rev Rheumatol 2012; 8(10): 587-98.
25. Golub EE. Role of matrix vesicles in biomineralization. Biochimica et biophysica acta 2009; 1790(12): 1592-8.
26. Goldberg M, Kulkarni AB, Young M, Boskey A. Dentin: structure, composition and mineralization. Frontiers Biosci 2011; 3: 711-35.
27. Li X, Yang HY, Giachelli CM. Role of the sodium-dependent phosphate cotransporter, Pit-1, in vascular smooth muscle cell calcification. Circulation research 2006; 98(7): 905-12.
28. Crouthamel MH, Lau WL, Leaf EM, et al. Sodium-Dependent Phosphate Cotransporters and Phosphate-Induced Calcification of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells: Redundant Roles for PiT-1 and PiT-2. Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, Vascular Biol 2013; 33(11): 2625-32.
29. Rautiainen S, Wang L, Manson JE, Sesso HD. The role of calcium in the prevention of cardiovascular disease--a review of observational studies and randomized clinical trials. Current Atherosclerosis Reports 2013; 15(11): 362.
30. Block GA, Hulbert-Shearon TE, Levin NW, Port FK. Association of serum phosphorus and calcium x phosphate product with mortality risk in chronic hemodialysis patients: a national study. American journal of kidney diseases: the official J Natl Kidney Foundation 1998; 31(4): 607-17.
31. Arnold WV, Fertala A. Skeletal diseases caused by mutations that affect collagen structure and function. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2013; 45(8): 1556-67.
32. Yang X, Matsuda K, Bialek P, et al. ATF4 is a substrate of RSK2 and an essential regulator of osteoblast biology; implication for Coffin-Lowry Syndrome. Cell 2004; 117(3): 387-98.
33. Maurice P, Blaise S, Gayral S, et al. Elastin fragmentation and atherosclerosis progression: the elastokine concept. Trends cardiovascular Med 2013; 23(6): 211-21.
34. Khavandgar Z, Roman H, Li J, et al. Elastin haploinsufficiency impedes the progression of arterial calcification in MGP-deficient mice. Journal of bone and mineral research: the official J Am Soc Bone Mineral Res 2013.
35. Fleisch H, Bisaz S. Mechanism of calcification: inhibitory role of pyrophosphate. Nature 1962; 195: 911.
36. Terkeltaub RA. Inorganic pyrophosphate generation and disposition in pathophysiology. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2001; 281(1): C1-11.
37. Okawa A, Nakamura I, Goto S, Moriya H, Nakamura Y, Ikegawa S. Mutation in Npps in a mouse model of ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament of the spine. Nature Genet 1998; 19(3): 271-3.
38. Nakamura I, Ikegawa S, Okawa A, et al. Association of the human NPPS gene with ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament of the spine (OPLL). Human Genet 1999; 104(6): 492-7.
39. Ho AM, Johnson MD, Kingsley DM. Role of the mouse ank gene in control of tissue calcification and arthritis. Science 2000; 289(5477): 265-70.
40. Johnson K, Polewski M, van Etten D, Terkeltaub R. Chondrogenesis mediated by PPi depletion promotes spontaneous aortic calcification in NPP1-/-mice. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, Vascular Biol 2005; 25(4): 686-91.
41. Narisawa S, Frohlander N, Millan JL. Inactivation of two mouse alkaline phosphatase genes and establishment of a model of infantile hypophosphatasia. Developmental dynamics: an official publication of the American Association of Anatomists 1997; 208(3): 432-46.
42. Hessle L, Johnson KA, Anderson HC, et al. Tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase and plasma cell membrane glycoprotein-1 are central antagonistic regulators of bone mineralization. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002; 99(14): 9445-9.
43. Rutsch F, Ruf N, Vaingankar S, et al. Mutations in ENPP1 are associated with 'idiopathic' infantile arterial calcification. Nature Genet 2003; 34(4): 379-81.
44. Lomashvili KA, Khawandi W, O'Neill WC. Reduced plasma pyrophosphate levels in hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol: JASN 2005; 16(8): 2495-500.
45. O'Neill WC, Sigrist MK, McIntyre CW. Plasma pyrophosphate and vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease. Nephrology, dialysis, transplantation: official publication of the European Dialysis and Transplant Association-European Renal Association 2010; 25(1): 187-91.
46. Hackeng TM, Rosing J, Spronk HM, Vermeer C. Total chemical synthesis of human matrix Gla protein. Protein science: a publication Protein Soc 2001; 10(4): 864-70.
47. Price PA, Faus SA, Williamson MK. Warfarin causes rapid calcification of the elastic lamellae in rat arteries and heart valves. Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, Vascular Biol 1998; 18(9): 1400-7.
48. Booth SL. Skeletal functions of vitamin K-dependent proteins: not just for clotting anymore. Nutrition Rev 1997; 55(7): 282-4.
49. Munroe PB, Olgunturk RO, Fryns JP, et al. Mutations in the gene encoding the human matrix Gla protein cause Keutel syndrome. Nat Genet 1999; 21(1): 142-4.
50. Teebi AS, Lambert DM, Kaye GM, Al-Fifi S, Tewfik TL, Azouz EM. Keutel syndrome: further characterization and review. Am J Med Genet 1998; 78(2): 182-7.
51. Luo G, Ducy P, McKee MD, et al. Spontaneous calcification of arteries and cartilage in mice lacking matrix GLA protein. Nature 1997; 386(6620): 78-81.
52. Schinke T, McKee MD, Karsenty G. Extracellular matrix calcification: where is the action? Nat Genet 1999; 21(2): 150-1.
53. El-Maadawy S, Kaartinen MT, Schinke T, Murshed M, Karsenty G, McKee MD. Cartilage formation and calcification in arteries of mice lacking matrix Gla protein. Connective Tissue Res 2003; 44 Suppl 1: 272-8.
54. Marulanda J, Gao C, Roman H, Henderson JE, Murshed M. Prevention of arterial calcification corrects the low bone mass phenotype in MGP-deficient mice. Bone 2013.
55. Murshed M, Schinke T, McKee MD, Karsenty G. Extracellular matrix mineralization is regulated locally; different roles of two gla-containing proteins. J Cell Biol 2004; 165(5): 625-30.
56. O'Young J, Liao Y, Xiao Y, et al. Matrix Gla protein inhibits ectopic calcification by a direct interaction with hydroxyapatite crystals. J Am Chemical Soc 2011; 133(45): 18406-12.
57. Price PA, Lim JE. The inhibition of calcium phosphate precipitation by fetuin is accompanied by the formation of a fetuin-mineral complex. J Biological Chem 2003; 278(24): 22144-52.
58. Jahnen-Dechent W, Heiss A, Schafer C, Ketteler M. Fetuin-A regulation of calcified matrix metabolism. Circulation Res 2011; 108(12): 1494-509.
59. Stenvinkel P, Wang K, Qureshi AR, et al. Low fetuin-A levels are associated with cardiovascular death: Impact of variations in the gene encoding fetuin. Kidney int 2005; 67(6): 2383-92.
60. Marechal C, Schlieper G, Nguyen P, et al. Serum fetuin-A levels are associated with vascular calcifications and predict cardiovascular events in renal transplant recipients. Clinical J Am Soc Nephrol: CJASN 2011; 6(5): 974-85.
61. Li Q, Jiang Q, Pfendner E, Varadi A, Uitto J. Pseudoxanthoma elasticum: clinical phenotypes, molecular genetics and putative pathomechanisms. Exp Dermatol 2009; 18(1): 1-11.
62. Jiang Q, Dibra F, Lee MD, Oldenburg R, Uitto J. Overexpression of fetuin-a counteracts ectopic mineralization in a mouse model of pseudoxanthoma elasticum (abcc6(-/-)). J Investigat Dermatol 2010; 130(5): 1288-96.
63. Baud'huin M, Lamoureux F, Duplomb L, Redini F, Heymann D. RANKL, RANK, osteoprotegerin: key partners of osteoimmunology and vascular diseases. Cellular and molecular life sciences: CMLS 2007; 64(18): 2334-50.
64. Heymann MF, Herisson F, Davaine JM, et al. Role of the OPG/RANK/RANKL triad in calcifications of the atheromatous plaques: comparison between carotid and femoral beds. Cytokine 2012; 58(2): 300-6.
65. Bucay N, Sarosi I, Dunstan CR, et al. osteoprotegerin-deficient mice develop early onset osteoporosis and arterial calcification. Genes Development 1998; 12(9): 1260-8.
66. Mizuno A, Amizuka N, Irie K, et al. Severe osteoporosis in mice lacking osteoclastogenesis inhibitory factor/osteoprotegerin. Biochem Biophysical Res Communicat 1998; 247(3): 610-5.
67. Panizo S, Cardus A, Encinas M, et al. RANKL increases vascular smooth muscle cell calcification through a RANK-BMP4-dependent pathway. Circulation Res 2009; 104(9): 1041-8.
68. Yao Y, Shahbazian A, Bostrom KI. Proline and gamma-carboxylated glutamate residues in matrix Gla protein are critical for binding of bone morphogenetic protein-4. Circulation Res 2008; 102(9): 1065-74.
69. Orita Y, Yamamoto H, Kohno N, et al. Role of osteoprotegerin in arterial calcification: development of new animal model. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, Vascular Biol 2007; 27(9): 2058-64.
70. Olesen M, Skov V, Mechta M, Mumm BH, Rasmussen LM. No influence of OPG and its ligands, RANKL and TRAIL, on proliferation and regulation of the calcification process in primary human vascular smooth muscle cells. Molecular Cellular Endocrinol 2012; 362(1-2): 149-56.
71. Kiechl S, Schett G, Wenning G, et al. Osteoprotegerin is a risk factor for progressive atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2004; 109(18): 2175-80.
72. Ozkok A, Caliskan Y, Sakaci T, et al. Osteoprotegerin/RANKL axis and progression of coronary artery calcification in hemodialysis patients. Clinical J Am Soc Nephrol: CJASN 2012; 7(6): 965-73.
73. Moe SM, O'Neill KD, Duan D, et al. Medial artery calcification in ESRD patients is associated with deposition of bone matrix proteins. Kidney Int 2002; 61(2): 638-47.
74. Moe SM, Duan D, Doehle BP, O'Neill KD, Chen NX. Uremia induces the osteoblast differentiation factor Cbfa1 in human blood vessels. Kidney Int 2003; 63(3): 1003-11.
75. Shao JS, Cheng SL, Pingsterhaus JM, Charlton-Kachigian N, Loewy AP, Towler DA. Msx2 promotes cardiovascular calcification by activating paracrine Wnt signals. J Clinical Investigat 2005; 115(5): 1210-20.
76. Yao Y, Bennett BJ, Wang X, et al. Inhibition of bone morphogenetic proteins protects against atherosclerosis and vascular calcification. Circulation Res 2010; 107(4): 485-94.
77. Speer MY, Yang HY, Brabb T, et al. Smooth muscle cells give rise to osteochondrogenic precursors and chondrocytes in calcifying arteries. Circulation Res 2009; 104(6): 733-41.
78. Zebboudj AF, Imura M, Bostrom K. Matrix GLA protein, a regulatory protein for bone morphogenetic protein-2. J Biological Chem 2002; 277(6): 4388-94.
79. Lomashvili KA, Wang X, Wallin R, O'Neill WC. Matrix Gla protein metabolism in vascular smooth muscle and role in uremic vascular calcification. J Biological Chem 2011; 286(33): 28715-22.
80. Basalyga DM, Simionescu DT, Xiong W, Baxter BT, Starcher BC, Vyavahare NR. Elastin degradation and calcification in an abdominal aorta injury model: role of matrix metalloproteinases. Circulation 2004; 110(22): 3480-7.
81. Wang SS, Martin LJ, Schadt EE, et al. Disruption of the aortic elastic lamina and medial calcification share genetic determinants in mice. Circulation Cardiovascular genet 2009; 2(6): 573-82.
82. Morris CA, Mervis CB. Williams syndrome and related disorders. Ann Rev Genom Human Genet 2000; 1: 461-84.
83. Proudfoot D, Skepper JN, Hegyi L, Bennett MR, Shanahan CM, Weissberg PL. Apoptosis regulates human vascular calcification in vitro: evidence for initiation of vascular calcification by apoptotic bodies. Circulation Res 2000; 87(11): 1055-62.
84. Dai XY, Zhao MM, Cai Y, et al. Phosphate-induced autophagy counteracts vascular calcification by reducing matrix vesicle release. Kidney Int 2013; 83(6): 1042-51.
85. Garcia JH, Khang-Loon H. Carotid atherosclerosis. Definition, pathogenesis, and clinical significance. Neuroimaging Clinics North Am 1996; 6(4): 801-10.
86. Maw TT, Fried L. Chronic kidney disease in the elderly. Clinics Geriatric Med 2013; 29(3): 611-24.
87. Taal MW. Chronic kidney disease in general populations and primary care: diagnostic and therapeutic considerations. Curr Opinion Nephrol Hypertension 2013; 22(6): 593-8.
88. Schurgers LJ, Barreto DV, Barreto FC, et al. The circulating inactive form of matrix gla protein is a surrogate marker for vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease: a preliminary report. Clinical J Am Soc Nephrol: CJASN 2010; 5(4): 568-75.
89. Pai AS, Giachelli CM. Matrix remodeling in vascular calcification associated with chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol: JASN 2010; 21(10): 1637-40.
90. Chen NX, Moe SM. Arterial calcification in diabetes. Curr Diabetes Reports 2003; 3(1): 28-32.
91. Sinha A, Vyavahare NR. High-glucose levels and elastin degradation products accelerate osteogenesis in vascular smooth muscle cells. Diabetes & vascular disease research: official J Int Society of Diabetes Vascular Disease 2013; 10(5): 410-9.
92. Rachner TD, Khosla S, Hofbauer LC. Osteoporosis: now and the future. Lancet 2011; 377(9773): 1276-87.
93. Otero JE, Gottesman GS, McAlister WH, et al. Severe skeletal toxicity from protracted etidronate therapy for generalized arterial calcification of infancy. J bone and mineral research: the official J American Society for Bone Mineral Res 2013; 28(2): 419-30.
94. Edouard T, Chabot G, Miro J, et al. Efficacy and safety of 2-year etidronate treatment in a child with generalized arterial calcification of infancy. Eur J Pediatrics 2011; 170(12): 1585-90.
95. Osako MK, Nakagami H, Koibuchi N, et al. Estrogen inhibits vascular calcification via vascular RANKL system: common mechanism of osteoporosis and vascular calcification. Circulation Res 2010; 107(4): 466-75.
96. Hofbauer LC, Brueck CC, Shanahan CM, Schoppet M, Dobnig H. Vascular calcification and osteoporosis--from clinical observation towards molecular understanding. Osteoporosis international: a journal established as result of cooperation between the European Foundation for Osteoporosis and the National Osteoporosis Foundation USA 2007; 18(3): 251-9.
97. Finger RP, Charbel Issa P, Ladewig MS, et al. Pseudoxanthoma elasticum: genetics, clinical manifestations and therapeutic approaches. Survey Ophthalmol 2009; 54(2): 272-85.
98. Nitschke Y, Rutsch F. Genetics in arterial calcification: lessons learned from rare diseases. Trends cardiovascular Med 2012; 22(6): 145-9.
99. Campens L, Vanakker OM, Trachet B, et al. Characterization of cardiovascular involvement in pseudoxanthoma elasticum families. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, Vascular Biol 2013; 33(11): 2646-52.
100. Russell RG. Bisphosphonates: the first 40 years. Bone 2011; 49(1): 2-19.
101. Blumenthal NC. Mechanisms of inhibition of calcification. Clinical orthopaedics and related research 1989(247): 279-89.
102. Simon JA. Are all bisphosphonates the same? Potential reasons for clinical differences: a perspective. J Women's Health 2010; 19(4): 719-27.
103. Addison WN, Azari F, Sorensen ES, Kaartinen MT, McKee MD. Pyrophosphate inhibits mineralization of osteoblast cultures by binding to mineral, up-regulating osteopontin, and inhibiting alkaline phosphatase activity. J biological Chem 2007; 282(21): 15872-83.
104. Wu M, Rementer C, Giachelli CM. Vascular calcification: an update on mechanisms and challenges in treatment. Calcified tissue Int 2013; 93(4): 365-73.
105. Price PA, Roublick AM, Williamson MK. Artery calcification in uremic rats is increased by a low protein diet and prevented by treatment with ibandronate. Kidney Int 2006; 70(9): 1577-83.
106. Tamura K, Suzuki Y, Matsushita M, et al. Prevention of aortic calcification by etidronate in the renal failure rat model. Eur J Pharmacol 2007; 558(1-3): 159-66.
107. Mathew S, Tustison KS, Sugatani T, Chaudhary LR, Rifas L, Hruska KA. The mechanism of phosphorus as a cardiovascular risk factor in CKD. J American Society of Nephrology: JASN 2008; 19(6): 1092-105.
108. Kazama JJ. Oral phosphate binders: history and prospects. Bone 2009; 45 Suppl 1: S8-12.
109. Negri AL. Phosphate binders, cardiovascular calcifications and mortality: do we need another survival study with sevelamer? J Nephrol 2010; 23(6): 653-7.
110. Rees L, Shroff RC. Phosphate binders in CKD: chalking out the differences. Pediatric Nephrol 2010; 25(3): 385-94.
111. Toussaint ND, Lau KK, Polkinghorne KR, Kerr PG. Attenuation of aortic calcification with lanthanum carbonate versus calcium-based phosphate binders in haemodialysis: A pilot randomized controlled trial. Nephrology 2011; 16(3): 290-8.
112. Ohtake T, Kobayashi S, Oka M, et al. Lanthanum carbonate delays progression of coronary artery calcification compared with calcium-based phosphate binders in patients on hemodialysis: a pilot study. J Cardiovascular Pharmacol Therapeut 2013; 18(5): 439-46.
113. Phan O, Maillard M, Peregaux C, et al. PA21, a new iron-based noncalcium phosphate binder, prevents vascular calcification in chronic renal failure rats. J Pharmacol Exp Therapeut 2013; 346(2): 281-9.
114. Ciceri P, Elli F, Brenna I, et al. Lanthanum prevents high phosphate-induced vascular calcification by preserving vascular smooth muscle lineage markers. Calcified Tissue Int 2013; 92(6): 521-30.