The Epidemiology of Diabetic Retinopathy

Retina Fifth Edition

Volumn 2, Issue , 2012, Pages 907-924

  Klein, Ronald ^a   Klein, Barbara E K ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84906796207     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-4557-0737-9.00045-X     Document Type: Chapter

References (224)

1. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. Prevalence of diabetes mellitus in southern Wisconsin. Am J Epidemiol 1984, 119:54-61.
2. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. II. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is less than 30 years. Arch Ophthalmol 1984, 102:520-526.
3. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. III. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is 30 or more years. Arch Ophthalmol 1984, 102:527-532.
4. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. IV. Diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 1984, 91:1464-1474.
5. Kempen JH, O'Colmain BJ, Leske MC, et al. The prevalence of diabetic retinopathy among adults in the United States. Arch Ophthalmol 2004, 122:552-563.
6. Klein R, Klein BE Vision disorders in diabetes. Diabetes in America 1995, 293-338. National Diabetes Data Group, Bethesda, MD, NIH Publication No. 95-1468. 2nd ed. M.I. Harris, C.C. Cowie, M.P. Stern (Eds.).
7. Houston A Retinopathy in the Poole area: An epidemiological inquiry. Advances in diabetes epidemiology 1982, Elsevier, Amsterdam. E. Eschwege (Ed.).
8. Dwyer MS, Melton LJ, Ballard DJ, et al. Incidence of diabetic retinopathy and blindness: a population-based study in Rochester, Minnesota. Diabetes Care 1985, 8:316-322.
9. Dorf A, Ballintine EJ, Bennett PH, et al. Retinopathy in Pima Indians. Relationships to glucose level, duration of diabetes, age at diagnosis of diabetes, and age at examination in a population with a high prevalence of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes 1976, 25:554-560.
10. Bennett PH, Rushforth NB, Miller M, et al. Epidemiologic studies of diabetes in the Pima Indians. Recent Prog Horm Res 1976, 32:333-376.
11. West KM, Erdreich LJ, Stober JA A detailed study of risk factors for retinopathy and nephropathy in diabetes. Diabetes 1980, 29:501-508.
12. Kahn HA, Leibowitz HM, Ganley JP, et al. The Framingham Eye Study. I. Outline and major prevalence findings. Am J Epidemiol 1977, 106:17-32.
13. King H, Balkau B, Zimmet P, et al. Diabetic retinopathy in Nauruans. Am J Epidemiol 1983, 117:659-667.
14. Ballard DJ, Melton LJ, Dwyer MS, et al. Risk factors for diabetic retinopathy: a population-based study in Rochester, Minnesota. Diabetes Care 1986, 9:334-342.
15. Danielsen R, Jonasson F, Helgason T Prevalence of retinopathy and proteinuria in type 1 diabetics in Iceland. Acta Med Scand 1982, 212:277-280.
16. Constable IJ, Knuiman MW, Welborn TA, et al. Assessing the risk of diabetic retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 1984, 97:53-61.
17. Knuiman MW, Welborn TA, McCann VJ, et al. Prevalence of diabetic complications in relation to risk factors. Diabetes 1986, 35:1332-1339.
18. Sjolie AK Ocular complications in insulin treated diabetes mellitus. An epidemiological study. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl 1985, 172:1-77.
19. Nielsen NV Diabetic retinopathy II. The course of retinopathy in diabetics treated with oral hypoglycaemic agents and diet regime alone. A one year epidemiological cohort study of diabetes mellitus. The Island of Falster, Denmark. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 1984, 62:266-273.
20. Nielsen NV Diabetic retinopathy I. The course of retinopathy in insulin-treated diabetics. A one year epidemiological cohort study of diabetes mellitus. The Island of Falster, Denmark. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 1984, 62:256-265.
21. Teuscher A, Schnell H, Wilson PW Incidence of diabetic retinopathy and relationship to baseline plasma glucose and blood pressure. Diabetes Care 1988, 11:246-251.
22. Haffner SM, Fong D, Stern MP, et al. Diabetic retinopathy in Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites. Diabetes 1988, 37:878-884.
23. Jerneld B Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy. A population study from the Swedish island of Gotland. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl 1988, 188:3-32.
24. Hamman RF, Mayer EJ, Moo-Young GA, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of diabetic retinopathy in non-Hispanic whites and Hispanics with NIDDM. San Luis Valley Diabetes Study. Diabetes 1989, 38:1231-1237.
25. McLeod BK, Thompson JR, Rosenthal AR The prevalence of retinopathy in the insulin-requiring diabetic patients of an English country town. Eye (Lond) 1988, 2(Pt 4):424-430.
26. Kostraba JN, Klein R, Dorman JS, et al. The epidemiology of diabetes complications study. IV. Correlates of diabetic background and proliferative retinopathy. Am J Epidemiol 1991, 133:381-391.
27. Fujimoto W, Fukuda M Natural history of diabetic retinopathy and its treatment in Japan. Diabetes mellitus in Asia 1976, 225-231. Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam. S. Baba, Y. Goto, I. Fukui (Eds.).
28. Kullberg CE, Abrahamsson M, Arnqvist HJ, et al. Prevalence of retinopathy differs with age at onset of diabetes in a population of patients with Type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 2002, 19:924-931.
29. Lopez IM, Diez A, Velilla S, et al. Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and eye care in a rural area of Spain. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 2002, 9:205-214.
30. Broadbent DM, Scott JA, Vora JP, et al. Prevalence of diabetic eye disease in an inner city population: the Liverpool Diabetic Eye Study. Eye (Lond) 1999, 13(Pt 2):160-165.
31. West SK, Klein R, Rodriguez J, et al. Diabetes and diabetic retinopathy in a Mexican-American population: Proyecto VER. Diabetes Care 2001, 24:1204-1209.
32. McKay R, McCarty CA, Taylor HR Diabetic retinopathy in Victoria, Australia: the Visual Impairment Project. Br J Ophthalmol 2000, 84:865-870.
33. Toeller M, Buyken AE, Heitkamp G, et al. Prevalence of chronic complications, metabolic control and nutritional intake in type 1 diabetes: comparison between different European regions. EURODIAB Complications Study group. Horm Metab Res 1999, 31:680-685.
34. Leske MC, Wu SY, Hyman L, et al. Diabetic retinopathy in a black population: the Barbados Eye Study. Ophthalmology 1999, 106:1893-1899.
35. Rajala U, Laakso M, Qiao Q, et al. Prevalence of retinopathy in people with diabetes, impaired glucose tolerance, and normal glucose tolerance. Diabetes Care 1998, 21:1664-1669.
36. Harris MI, Klein R, Cowie CC, et al. Is the risk of diabetic retinopathy greater in non-Hispanic blacks and Mexican Americans than in non-Hispanic whites with type 2 diabetes? A U.S. population study. Diabetes Care 1998, 21:1230-1235.
37. Dowse GK, Humphrey AR, Collins VR, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for diabetic retinopathy in the multiethnic population of Mauritius. Am J Epidemiol 1998, 147:448-457.
38. Kohner EM, Aldington SJ, Stratton IM, et al. United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study, 30: diabetic retinopathy at diagnosis of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and associated risk factors. Arch Ophthalmol 1998, 116:297-303.
39. Mitchell P, Smith W, Wang JJ, et al. Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in an older community. The Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology 1998, 105:406-411.
40. Gonzalez Villalpando ME, Gonzalez VC, Arredondo PB, et al. Moderate-to-severe diabetic retinopathy is more prevalent in Mexico City than in San Antonio, Texas. Diabetes Care 1997, 20:773-777.
41. Berinstein DM, Stahn RM, Welty TK, et al. The prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and associated risk factors among Sioux Indians. Diabetes Care 1997, 20:757-759.
42. Kernell A, Dedorsson I, Johansson B, et al. Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in children and adolescents with IDDM. A population-based multicentre study. Diabetologia 1997, 40:307-310.
43. Collins VR, Dowse GK, Plehwe WE, et al. High prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy in Polynesians of Western Samoa. Diabetes Care 1995, 18:1140-1149.
44. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The Beaver Dam Eye Study. Retinopathy in adults with newly discovered and previously diagnosed diabetes mellitus. Ophthalmology 1992, 99:58-62.
45. Roy MS Diabetic retinopathy in African Americans with type 1 diabetes: The New Jersey 725: I. Methodology, population, frequency of retinopathy, and visual impairment. Arch Ophthalmol 2000, 118:97-104.
46. Roy MS, Klein R Macular edema and retinal hard exudates in African Americans with type 1 diabetes: the New Jersey 725. Arch Ophthalmol 2001, 119:251-259.
47. Klein R, Klein BE Are individuals with diabetes seeing better? A long-term epidemiological perspective. Diabetes 2010, 59:1853-1860.
48. Suh DC, Choi IS, Plauschinat C, et al. Impact of comorbid conditions and race/ethnicity on glycemic control among the US population with type 2 diabetes, 1988-1994 to 1999-2004. J Diabetes Complications 2010, 24:382-391.
49. Ong KL, Cheung BM, Wong LY, et al. Prevalence, treatment, and control of diagnosed diabetes in the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2004. Ann Epidemiol 2008, 18:222-229.
50. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. IX. Four-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is less than 30 years. Arch Ophthalmol 1989, 107:237-243.
51. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. X. Four-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is 30 years or more. Arch Ophthalmol 1989, 107:244-249.
52. Klein R, Moss SE, Klein BE, et al. The Wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy. XI. The incidence of macular edema. Ophthalmology 1989, 96:1501-1510.
53. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XIV. Ten-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1994, 112:1217-1228.
54. Henricsson M, Nystrom L, Blohme G, et al. The incidence of retinopathy 10 years after diagnosis in young adult people with diabetes: results from the nationwide population-based Diabetes Incidence Study in Sweden (DISS). Diabetes Care 2003, 26:349-354.
55. Lloyd CE, Becker D, Ellis D, et al. Incidence of complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a survival analysis. Am J Epidemiol 1996, 143:431-441.
56. Klein R, Palta M, Allen C, et al. Incidence of retinopathy and associated risk factors from time of diagnosis of insulin-dependent diabetes. Arch Ophthalmol 1997, 115:351-356.
57. Tudor SM, Hamman RF, Baron A, et al. Incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy in Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites with type 2 diabetes. San Luis Valley Diabetes Study, Colorado. Diabetes Care 1998, 21:53-61.
58. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XVII. The 14-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy and associated risk factors in type 1 diabetes. Ophthalmology 1998, 105:1801-1815.
59. Porta M, Sjoelie AK, Chaturvedi N, et al. Risk factors for progression to proliferative diabetic retinopathy in the EURODIAB Prospective Complications Study. Diabetologia 2001, 44:2203-2209.
60. Ling R, Ramsewak V, Taylor D, et al. Longitudinal study of a cohort of people with diabetes screened by the Exeter Diabetic Retinopathy Screening Programme. Eye (Lond) 2002, 16:140-145.
61. Younis N, Broadbent DM, Vora JP, et al. Incidence of sight-threatening retinopathy in patients with type 2 diabetes in the Liverpool Diabetic Eye Study: a cohort study. Lancet 2003, 361:195-200.
62. Roy MS, Affouf M Six-year progression of retinopathy and associated risk factors in African American patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus: the New Jersey 725. Arch Ophthalmol 2006, 124:1297-1306.
63. Varma R, Choudhury F, Klein R, et al. Four-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy and macular edema: the Los Angeles Latino Eye Study. Am J Ophthalmol 2010, 149:752-761.
64. Hovind P, Tarnow L, Rossing K, et al. Decreasing incidence of severe diabetic microangiopathy in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2003, 26:1258-1264.
65. Bojestig M, Arnqvist HJ, Karlberg BE, et al. Unchanged incidence of severe retinopathy in a population of Type 1 diabetic patients with marked reduction of nephropathy. Diabet Med 1998, 15:863-869.
66. Nordwall M, Bojestig M, Arnqvist HJ, et al. Declining incidence of severe retinopathy and persisting decrease of nephropathy in an unselected population of Type 1 diabetes: the Linköping Diabetes Complications Study. Diabetologia 2004, 47:1266-1272.
67. Pambianco G, Costacou T, Ellis D, et al. The 30-year natural history of type 1 diabetes complications: the Pittsburgh Epidemiology of Diabetes Complications Study experience. Diabetes 2006, 55:1463-1469.
68. Klein R, Knudtson MD, Lee KE, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XXII. The twenty-five-year progression of retinopathy in persons with type 1 diabetes. Ophthalmology 2008, 115:1859-1868.
69. Klein R, Knudtson MD, Lee KE, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XXIII. The twenty-five-year incidence of macular edema in persons with type 1 diabetes. Ophthalmology 2009, 116:497-503.
70. Klein R, Lee KE, Knudtson MD, et al. Changes in visual impairment prevalence by period of diagnosis of diabetes: the Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Ophthalmology 2009, 116:1937-1942.
71. Klein R, Lee KE, Gangnon RE, et al. The 25-year incidence of visual impairment in type 1 diabetes mellitus. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Ophthalmology 2010, 117:63-70.
72. Klein R, Sharrett AR, Klein BE, et al. The association of atherosclerosis, vascular risk factors, and retinopathy in adults with diabetes: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Ophthalmology 2002, 109:1225-1234.
73. Klein R, Marino EK, Kuller LH, et al. The relation of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease to retinopathy in people with diabetes in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Br J Ophthalmol 2002, 86:84-90.
74. Wong TY, Klein R, Islam FM, et al. Diabetic retinopathy in a multi-ethnic cohort in the United States. Am J Ophthalmol 2006, 141:446-455.
75. Zhang X, Saaddine JB, Chou CF, et al. Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in the United States, 2005-2008. JAMA 2010, 304:649-656.
76. Varma R, Torres M, Pena F, et al. Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in adult Latinos: the Los Angeles Latino eye study. Ophthalmology 2004, 111:1298-1306.
77. West KM, Erdreich LJ, Stober JA A detailed study of risk factors for retinopathy and nephropathy in diabetes. Diabetes 1980, 29:501-508.
78. Lee ET, Lee VS, Lu M, et al. Development of proliferative retinopathy in NIDDM. A follow-up study of American Indians in Oklahoma. Diabetes 1992, 41:359-367.
79. Lee ET, Lee VS, Kingsley RM, et al. Diabetic retinopathy in Oklahoma Indians with NIDDM. Incidence and risk factors. Diabetes Care 1992, 15:1620-1627.
80. Nelson RG, Newman JM, Knowler WC, et al. Incidence of end-stage renal disease in type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus in Pima Indians. Diabetologia 1988, 31:730-736.
81. Looker HC, Krakoff J, Knowler WC, et al. Longitudinal studies of incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy assessed by retinal photography in pima indians. Diabetes Care 2003, 26:320-326.
82. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group Clustering of long-term complications in families with diabetes in the diabetes control and complications trial. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. Diabetes 1997, 46:1829-1839.
83. Rema M, Saravanan G, Deepa R, et al. Familial clustering of diabetic retinopathy in South Indian Type 2 diabetic patients. Diabet Med 2002, 19:910-916.
84. Fukuda M, Nakano S, Imaizumi N, et al. Mitochondrial DNA mutations are associated with both decreased insulin secretion and advanced microvascular complications in Japanese diabetic subjects. J Diabetes Complications 1999, 13:277-283.
85. Demaine A, Cross D, Millward A Polymorphisms of the aldose reductase gene and susceptibility to retinopathy in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2000, 41:4064-4068.
86. Yamamoto T, Sato T, Hosoi M, et al. Aldose reductase gene polymorphism is associated with progression of diabetic nephropathy in Japanese patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Obes Metab 2003, 5:51-57.
87. Kankova K, Muzik J, Karaskova J, et al. Duration of non-Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and the TNF-beta NcoI genotype as predictive factors in proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmologica 2001, 215:294-298.
88. Santos A, Salguero ML, Gurrola C, et al. The epsilon4 allele of apolipoprotein E gene is a potential risk factor for the severity of macular edema in type 2 diabetic Mexican patients. Ophthalmic Genet 2002, 23:13-19.
89. Kao Y, Donaghue KC, Chan A, et al. Paraoxonase gene cluster is a genetic marker for early microvascular complications in type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 2002, 19:212-215.
90. Taverna MJ, Sola A, Guyot-Argenton C, et al. eNOS4 polymorphism of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase predicts risk for severe diabetic retinopathy. Diabet Med 2002, 19:240-245.
91. Kamiuchi K, Hasegawa G, Obayashi H, et al. Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) polymorphism is associated with diabetic retinopathy in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med 2002, 19:371-376.
92. Matsubara Y, Murata M, Maruyama T, et al. Association between diabetic retinopathy and genetic variations in alpha2beta1 integrin, a platelet receptor for collagen. Blood 2000, 95:1560-1564.
93. Yang B, Cross DF, Ollerenshaw M, et al. Polymorphisms of the vascular endothelial growth factor and susceptibility to diabetic microvascular complications in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes Complications 2003, 17:1-6.
94. Liew G, Klein R, Wong TY The role of genetics in susceptibility to diabetic retinopathy. Int Ophthalmol Clin 2009, 49:35-52.
95. Fong DS, Aiello L, Gardner TW, et al. Diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care 2003, 26(Suppl 1):S99-S102.
96. Klein BE, Moss SE, Klein R Is menarche associated with diabetic retinopathy?. Diabetes Care 1990, 13:1034-1038.
97. Frost-Larsen K, Starup K Fluorescein angiography in diabetic children. A follow-up. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 1980, 58:355-360.
98. Murphy RP, Nanda M, Plotnick L, et al. The relationship of puberty to diabetic retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1990, 108:215-218.
99. Kostraba JN, Dorman JS, Orchard TJ, et al. Contribution of diabetes duration before puberty to development of microvascular complications in IDDM subjects. Diabetes Care 1989, 12:686-693.
100. Harris MI, Klein R, Welborn TA, et al. Onset of NIDDM occurs at least 4-7 yr before clinical diagnosis. Diabetes Care 1992, 15:815-819.
101. Aiello LM, Rand LI, Briones JC, et al. Diabetic retinopathy in Joslin Clinic patients with adult-onset diabetes. Ophthalmology 1981, 88:619-623.
102. West KM Epidemiology of diabetes and its vascular lesions 1978, Elsevier, New York.
103. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993, 329:977-986.
104. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group The effect of intensive diabetes treatment on the progression of diabetic retinopathy in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Arch Ophthalmol 1995, 113:36-51.
105. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group Progression of retinopathy with intensive versus conventional treatment in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Ophthalmology 1995, 102:647-661.
106. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group The absence of a glycemic threshold for the development of long-term complications: the perspective of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Diabetes 1996, 45:1289-1298.
107. The Kroc Collaborative Study Group Diabetic retinopathy after two years of intensified insulin treatment. Follow-up of the Kroc Collaborative Study. JAMA 1988, 260:37-41.
108. Lauritzen T, Frost-Larsen K, Larsen HW, et al. Two-year experience with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion in relation to retinopathy and neuropathy. Diabetes 1985, 34(Suppl. 3):74-79.
109. Dahl-Jørgensen K, Brinchmann-Hansen O, Hanssen KF, et al. Rapid tightening of blood glucose control leads to transient deterioration of retinopathy in insulin dependent diabetes mellitus: the Oslo study. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1985, 290:811-815.
110. Warram JH, Manson JE, Krolewski AS Glycosylated hemoglobin and the risk of retinopathy in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1995, 332:1305-1306.
111. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group Lifetime benefits and costs of intensive therapy as practiced in the diabetes control and complications trial. JAMA 1996, 276:1409-1415.
112. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications Research Group Retinopathy and nephropathy in patients with type 1 diabetes four years after a trial of intensive therapy. N Engl J Med 2000, 342:381-389.
113. The Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (EDIC) Study Group Sustained effect of intensive treatment of type 1 diabetes mellitus on development and progression of diabetic nephropathy. JAMA 2003, 290:2159-2167.
114. Cooper ME Metabolic memory: implications for diabetic vascular complications. Pediatr Diabetes 2009, 10:343-346.
115. Holman RR, Paul SK, Bethel MA, et al. 10-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008, 359:1577-1589.
116. United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet 1998, 352:837-853.
117. United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). Lancet 1998, 352:854-865.
118. Gray A, Raikou M, McGuire A, et al. Cost effectiveness of an intensive blood glucose control policy in patients with type 2 diabetes: economic analysis alongside randomised controlled trial (UKPDS 41). United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study Group. BMJ 2000, 320:1373-1378.
119. Duckworth WC, McCarren M, Abraira C Glucose control and cardiovascular complications: the VA Diabetes Trial. Diabetes Care 2001, 24:942-945.
120. Duckworth WC, Abraira C, Moritz T, et al. Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2009, 360:129-139.
121. Chew EY, Ambrosius WT, Davis MD, et al. Effects of medical therapies on retinopathy progression in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2010, 363:233-244.
122. Ismail-Beigi F, Craven T, Banerji MA, et al. Effect of intensive treatment of hyperglycaemia on microvascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes: an analysis of the ACCORD randomised trial. Lancet 2010, 376:419-430.
123. Patel A, MacMahon S, Chalmers J, et al. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008, 358:2560-2572.
124. American Diabetes Association Standards of medical care for patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 1994, 17:616-623.
125. Harris MI Health care and health status and outcomes for patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2000, 23:754-758.
126. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The medical management of hyperglycemia over a 10-year period in people with diabetes. Diabetes Care 1996, 19:744-750.
127. Klein BE Reduction in risk of progression of diabetic retinopathy. N Engl J Med 2010, 363:287-288.
128. Klein R Intensive treatment of hyperglycaemia: ACCORD. Lancet 2010, 376:391-392.
129. Smith RB, Pyke DA, Watkins PJ, et al. C-peptide response to glucagon in diabetics with and without complications. N Z Med J 1979, 89:304-306.
130. Sjoberg S, Gunnarsson R, Gjotterberg M, et al. Residual insulin production, glycaemic control and prevalence of microvascular lesions and polyneuropathy in long-term type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 1987, 30:208-213.
131. Sjoberg S, Gjotterberg M, Lefvert AK, et al. Significance of residual insulin production in long-term type I diabetes mellitus. Transplant Proc 1986, 18:1498-1499.
132. Madsbad S, Lauritzen E, Faber OK, et al. The effect of residual beta-cell function on the development of diabetic retinopathy. Diabet Med 1986, 3:42-45.
133. Klein R, Moss SE, Klein BE, et al. Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XII. Relationship of C-peptide and diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes 1990, 39:1445-1450.
134. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XVI. The relationship of C-peptide to the incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes 1995, 44:796-801.
135. Steffes MW, Sibley S, Jackson M, et al. Beta-cell function and the development of diabetes-related complications in the diabetes control and complications trial. Diabetes Care 2003, 26:832-836.
136. Serghieri G, Bartolomei G, Pettenello C, et al. Raised retinopathy prevalence rate in insulin-treated patients: a feature of obese type II diabetes. Transplant Proc 1986, 18:1576-1577.
137. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. Is blood pressure a predictor of the incidence or progression of diabetic retinopathy?. Arch Intern Med 1989, 149:2427-2432.
138. Adler AI, Stratton IM, Neil HA, et al. Association of systolic blood pressure with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 36): prospective observational study. BMJ 2000, 321:412-419.
139. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XV. The long-term incidence of macular edema. Ophthalmology 1995, 102:7-16.
140. United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. BMJ 1998, 317:703-713.
141. Patel A, MacMahon S, Chalmers J, et al. Effects of a fixed combination of perindopril and indapamide on macrovascular and microvascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (the ADVANCE trial): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2007, 370:829-840.
142. Chaturvedi N, Sjolie AK, Stephenson JM, et al. Effect of lisinopril on progression of retinopathy in normotensive people with type 1 diabetes. The EUCLID Study Group. EURODIAB Controlled Trial of Lisinopril in Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus. Lancet 1998, 351:28-31.
143. Chaturvedi N Modulation of the renin-angiotensin system and retinopathy. Heart 2000, 84(Suppl. 1):i29-i31.
144. Chaturvedi N, Sjoelie AK, Svensson A The Diabetic Retinopathy Candesartan Trials (DIRECT) Programme, rationale and study design. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2002, 3:255-261.
145. Chaturvedi N, Porta M, Klein R, et al. Effect of candesartan on prevention (DIRECT-Prevent 1) and progression (DIRECT-Protect 1) of retinopathy in type 1 diabetes: randomised, placebo-controlled trials. Lancet 2008, 372:1394-1402.
146. Mauer M, Zinman B, Gardiner R, et al. Renal and retinal effects of enalapril and losartan in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2009, 361:40-51.
147. Mitchell P, Wong TY DIRECT new treatments for diabetic retinopathy. Lancet 2008, 372:1361-1363.
148. Sjølie AK, Klein R, Porta M, et al. Effect of candesartan on progression and regression of retinopathy in type 2 diabetes (DIRECT-Protect 2): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2008, 372:1385-1393.
149. Klein R, Moss SE, Klein BE Is gross proteinuria a risk factor for the incidence of proliferative diabetic retinopathy?. Ophthalmology 1993, 100:1140-1146.
150. Cruickshanks KJ, Ritter LL, Klein R, et al. The association of microalbuminuria with diabetic retinopathy. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Ophthalmology 1993, 100:862-867.
151. Lloyd CE, Klein R, Maser RE, et al. The progression of retinopathy over 2 years: the Pittsburgh Epidemiology of Diabetes Complications (EDC) Study. J Diabetes Complications 1995, 9:140-148.
152. Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE The incidence of vision loss in a diabetic population. Ophthalmology 1988, 95:1340-1348.
153. Duncan LJ, Cullen JF, Ireland JT, et al. A three-year trial of atromid therapy in exudative diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes 1968, 17:458-467.
154. Klein BE, Moss SE, Klein R, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XIII. Relationship of serum cholesterol to retinopathy and hard exudate. Ophthalmology 1991, 98:1261-1265.
155. Chew EY, Klein ML, Ferris FL, et al. Association of elevated serum lipid levels with retinal hard exudate in diabetic retinopathy. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) Report 22. Arch Ophthalmol 1996, 114:1079-1084.
156. Gordon B, Chang S, Kavanagh M, et al. The effects of lipid lowering on diabetic retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 1991, 112:385-391.
157. Freyberger H, Schifferdecker E, Schatz H [Regression of hard exudates in diabetic background retinopathy in therapy with etofibrate antilipemic agent.]. Med Klin (Munich) 1994, 89:594-597. 633.
158. Dale J, Farmer J, Jones AF, et al. Diabetic ischaemic and exudative maculopathy: are their risk factors different?. Diab Med 2000, 17:47.
159. Keech AC, Mitchell P, Summanen PA, et al. Effect of fenofibrate on the need for laser treatment for diabetic retinopathy (FIELD study): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2007, 370:1687-1697.
160. Goldsmith JR, Landaw SA Carbon monoxide and human health. Science 1968, 162:1352-1359.
161. Hawkins RI Smoking, platelets and thrombosis. Nature 1972, 236:450-452.
162. Klein R, Klein BE, Davis MD Is cigarette smoking associated with diabetic retinopathy?. Am J Epidemiol 1983, 118:228-238.
163. Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE Association of cigarette smoking with diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care 1991, 14:119-126.
164. Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE Cigarette smoking and ten-year progression of diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology 1996, 103:1438-1442.
165. Klein R, Moss SE, Klein BE, et al. Relation of ocular and systemic factors to survival in diabetes. Arch Intern Med 1989, 149:266-272.
166. Jakubowski JA, Vaillancourt R, Deykin D Interaction of ethanol, prostacyclin, and aspirin in determining human platelet reactivity in vitro. Arteriosclerosis 1988, 8:436-441.
167. Albert MA, Glynn RJ, Ridker PM Alcohol consumption and plasma concentration of C-reactive protein. Circulation 2003, 107:443-447.
168. Greenfield JR, Samaras K, Jenkins AB, et al. Moderate alcohol consumption, estrogen replacement therapy, and physical activity are associated with increased insulin sensitivity: is abdominal adiposity the mediator?. Diabetes Care 2003, 26:2734-2740.
169. Kingsley LA, Dorman JS, Doft BH, et al. An epidemiologic approach to the study of retinopathy: the Pittsburgh diabetic morbidity and retinopathy studies. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1988, 4:99-109.
170. Young RJ, McCulloch DK, Prescott RJ, et al. Alcohol: another risk factor for diabetic retinopathy?. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1984, 288:1035-1037.
171. Beulens JW, Kruidhof JS, Grobbee DE, et al. Alcohol consumption and risk of microvascular complications in type 1 diabetes patients: the EURODIAB Prospective Complications Study. Diabetologia 2008, 51:1631-1638.
172. Lee CC, Stolk RP, Adler AI, et al. Association between alcohol consumption and diabetic retinopathy and visual acuity - the AdRem Study. Diabet Med 2010, 27:1130-1137.
173. Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE Alcohol consumption and the prevalence of diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology 1992, 99:926-932.
174. Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE The association of alcohol consumption with the incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology 1994, 101:1962-1968.
175. Valmadrid CT, Klein R, Moss SE, et al. Alcohol intake and the risk of coronary heart disease mortality in persons with older-onset diabetes mellitus. JAMA 1999, 282:239-246.
176. Diabetes Drafting Group Prevalence of small vessel and large vessel disease in diabetic patients from 14 centres. The World Health Organisation Multinational Study of Vascular Disease in Diabetics. Diabetologia 1985, 28(Suppl.):615-640.
177. LaPorte RE, Dorman JS, Tajima N, et al. Pittsburgh Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus Morbidity and Mortality Study: physical activity and diabetic complications. Pediatrics 1986, 78:1027-1033.
178. van Leiden HA, Dekker JM, Moll AC, et al. Risk factors for incident retinopathy in a diabetic and nondiabetic population: the Hoorn study. Arch Ophthalmol 2003, 121:245-251.
179. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE Is obesity related to microvascular and macrovascular complications in diabetes? The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Arch Intern Med 1997, 157:650-656.
180. Wadén J, Tikkanen H, Forsblom C, et al. Leisure time physical activity is associated with poor glycemic control in type 1 diabetic women: the FinnDiane study. Diabetes Care 2005, 28:777-782.
181. Orchard TJ, Dorman JS, Maser RE, et al. Factors associated with avoidance of severe complications after 25 yr of IDDM. Pittsburgh Epidemiology of Diabetes Complications Study I. Diabetes Care 1990, 13:741-747.
182. Kriska AM, LaPorte RE, Patrick SL, et al. The association of physical activity and diabetic complications in individuals with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: the Epidemiology of Diabetes Complications Study - VII. J Clin Epidemiol 1991, 44:1207-1214.
183. Cruickshanks KJ, Moss SE, Klein R, et al. Physical activity and proliferative retinopathy in people diagnosed with diabetes before age 30 yr. Diabetes Care 1992, 15:1267-1272.
184. Cruickshanks KJ, Moss SE, Klein R, et al. Physical activity and the risk of progression of retinopathy or the development of proliferative retinopathy. Ophthalmology 1995, 102:1177-1182.
185. Hanna AK, Roy M, Zinman B, et al. An evaluation of factors associated with proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Clin Invest Med 1985, 8:109-116.
186. Haffner SM, Hazuda HP, Stern MP, et al. Effects of socioeconomic status on hyperglycemia and retinopathy levels in Mexican Americans with NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1989, 12:128-134.
187. Klein R, Klein BE, Jensen SC, et al. The relation of socioeconomic factors to the incidence of proliferative diabetic retinopathy and loss of vision. Ophthalmology 1994, 101:68-76.
188. Klein BE, Moss SE, Klein R Oral contraceptives in women with diabetes. Diabetes Care 1990, 13:895-898.
189. Klein BE, Klein R, Moss SE Exogenous estrogen exposures and changes in diabetic retinopathy. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Diabetes Care 1999, 22:1984-1987.
190. Klein BE, Moss SE, Klein R Effect of pregnancy on progression of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care 1990, 13:34-40.
191. Chew EY, Mills JL, Metzger BE, et al. Metabolic control and progression of retinopathy. The Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. Diabetes Care 1995, 18:631-637.
192. Hemachandra A, Ellis D, Lloyd CE, et al. The influence of pregnancy on IDDM complications. Diabetes Care 1995, 18:950-954.
193. Rasmussen KL, Laugesen CS, Ringholm L, et al. Progression of diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy in women with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia 2010, 53:1076-1083.
194. Lovestam-Adrian M, Agardh CD, Aberg A, et al. Pre-eclampsia is a potent risk factor for deterioration of retinopathy during pregnancy in Type 1 diabetic patients. Diabet Med 1997, 14:1059-1065.
195. Rosenn B, Miodovnik M, Kranias G, et al. Progression of diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy: association with hypertension in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992, 166:1214-1218.
196. Temple RC, Aldridge VA, Sampson MJ, et al. Impact of pregnancy on the progression of diabetic retinopathy in Type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 2001, 18:573-577.
197. Lauszus F, Klebe JG, Bek T Diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy during tight metabolic control. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2000, 79:367-370.
198. Rahman W, Rahman FZ, Yassin S, et al. Progression of retinopathy during pregnancy in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol 2007, 35:231-236.
199. Vestgaard M, Ringholm L, Laugesen CS, et al. Pregnancy-induced sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy in women with Type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 2010, 27:431-435.
200. Lauszus FF, Klebe JG, Bek T, et al. Increased serum IGF-I during pregnancy is associated with progression of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes 2003, 52:852-856.
201. Ringholm L, Vestgaard M, Laugesen CS, et al. Pregnancy-induced increase in circulating IGF-I is associated with progression of diabetic retinopathy in women with type 1 diabetes. Growth Horm IGF Res 2011, 21:25-30.
202. Best RM, Hayes R, Hadden DR, et al. Plasma levels of endothelin-1 in diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy. Eye (Lond) 1999, 13(Pt 2):179-182.
203. Vääräsmäki M, Anttila M, Pirttiaho H, et al. Are recurrent pregnancies a risk in Type 1 diabetes?. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2002, 81:1110-1115.
204. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE Epidemiology of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care 1992, 15:1875-1891.
205. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. Association of ocular disease and mortality in a diabetic population. Arch Ophthalmol 1999, 117:1487-1495.
206. Davis MD, Hiller R, Magli YL, et al. Prognosis for life in patients with diabetes: relation to severity of retinopathy. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1979, 77:144-170.
207. Hanis CL, Chu HH, Lawson K, et al. Mortality of Mexican Americans with NIDDM. Retinopathy and other predictors in Starr County, Texas. Diabetes Care 1993, 16:82-89.
208. Neil A, Hawkins M, Potok M, et al. A prospective population-based study of microalbuminuria as a predictor of mortality in NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1993, 16:996-1003.
209. Sorbinil Retinopathy Trial Research Group A randomized trial of sorbinil, an aldose reductase inhibitor, in diabetic retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1990, 108:1234-1244.
210. Elman MJ, Aiello LP, Beck RW, et al. Randomized trial evaluating ranibizumab plus prompt or deferred laser or triamcinolone plus prompt laser for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 2010, 117:1064-1077.
211. Witkin SR, Klein R Ophthalmologic care for persons with diabetes. JAMA 1984, 251:2534-2537.
212. Singer DE, Nathan DM, Fogel HA, et al. Screening for diabetic retinopathy. Ann Intern Med 1992, 116:660-671.
213. Sprafka JM, Fritsche TL, Baker R, et al. Prevalence of undiagnosed eye disease in high-risk diabetic individuals. Arch Intern Med 1990, 150:857-861.
214. Brechner RJ, Cowie CC, Howie LJ, et al. Ophthalmic examination among adults with diagnosed diabetes mellitus. JAMA 1993, 270:1714-1718.
215. Weiner JP, Parente ST, Garnick DW, et al. Variation in office-based quality. A claims-based profile of care provided to Medicare patients with diabetes. JAMA 1995, 273:1503-1508.
216. Kraft SK, Marrero DG, Lazaridis EN, et al. Primary care physicians' practice patterns and diabetic retinopathy. Current levels of care. Arch Fam Med 1997, 6:29-37.
217. Bresnick GH, Mukamel DB, Dickinson JC, et al. A screening approach to the surveillance of patients with diabetes for the presence of vision-threatening retinopathy. Ophthalmology 2000, 107:19-24.
218. Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE Factors associated with having eye examinations in persons with diabetes. Arch Fam Med 1995, 4:529-534.
219. National Institutes of Health The National Eye Health Education Program. From Vision to Research to Health Educations: Planning the Partnership 1990, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD.
220. Batchelder T, Barricks M The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1995, 113:702-703.
221. Vijan S, Hofer TP, Hayward RA Cost-utility analysis of screening intervals for diabetic retinopathy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA 2000, 283:889-896.
222. National Committee for Quality Assurance Health Plan Employers Data and Information Set (HEDIS(r)), Version 2.5 1996, National Committee for Quality Assurance, Washington, DC.
223. Velez R, Haffner SM, Stern MP, et al. Ophthalmologist versus retinal photographs in screening for diabetic retinopathy [abstract]. Clin Res 1987, 35:363A.
224. Bragge P, Gruen RL, Chau M, et al. Screening for presence or absence of diabetic retinopathy: a meta-analysis. Arch Ophthalmol 2011, 129(4):435-444.