The What, the Why, and the How: A Review of Racial Microaggressions Research in Psychology

Race and Social Problems

Volumn 6, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 181-200

  Wong, Gloria ^a   Derthick, Annie O ^b   David, E J R ^b   Saw, Anne ^a   Okazaki, Sumie ^c  

^a Department of Psychology University of California ^*  (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA ANCHORAGE   (United States)

^c NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Everyday racism; Microaggressions; Racism; Subtle racism

Indexed keywords

EID: 84901194515     PISSN: 18671748     EISSN: 18671756     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12552-013-9107-9     Document Type: Review

References (111)

1. Allen, Q. (2010). Racial microaggressions: The schooling experiences of black middle-class males in Arizona's secondary schools. Journal of African American Males in Education, 1(2), 125-143.
2. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author. doi: 10. 1037/11381-000.
3. Balsam, K. F., Molina, Y., Beadnell, B., Simoni, J., & Walters, K. (2011). Measuring multiple minority stress: The LGBT People of Color Microaggressions Scale. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17(2), 163-174. doi: 10. 1037/a0023244.
4. Barnes, R. R. (2011). Racial microaggressions, racial identity, and working alliance in cross-racial counseling supervision relationships between black supervisors and white supervisees. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
5. Beaumont, R. L. (2010). The influence of supervisor multicultural competence and racial microaggressions on supervisory working alliance, supervisee multicultural competence, and supervisee disclosure within supervision. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
6. Blume, A. W., Lovato, L. V., Thyken, B. N., & Denny, N. (2012). The relationship of microaggressions with alcohol use and anxiety among ethnic minority students in a historically white institution. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18, 45-54. doi: 10. 1037/a0025457.
7. Burdsey, D. (2011). That joke isn't funny anymore: Racial microaggressions, color-blind ideology and the mitigation of racism in English men's first-class cricket. Sociology of Sport Journal, 28(3), 261-283.
8. Burke, A. W. (1984). Racism and psychological disturbance among West Indians in Britain. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 30, 50-68.
9. Cappiccie, A., Chadha, J., Bi Lin, M., & Snyder, F. (2012). Using critical race theory to analyze how Disney constructs diversity: A construct for the baccalaureate human behavior in the social environment curriculum. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 32, 46-61. doi: 10. 1080/08841233. 2012. 640252.
10. Carter, R. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury: Recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress. The Counseling Psychologist, 35(1), 13-105.
11. Cartwright, B. Y., Washington, R. D., & McConnell, L. (2009). Examining racial microaggressions in rehabilitation counselor education. Rehabilitation Education, 23(2), 171-182.
12. Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans. American Psychologist, 54, 805-816.
13. Clark, D., Spanierman, L. B., Reed, T. D., Soble, J. R., & Cabana, S. (2011). Documenting Weblog expressions of racial microaggressions that target American Indians. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 4, 39-50. doi: 10. 1037/a0021762.
14. Constantine, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions against African American clients in cross-racial counseling relationships. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 1-16.
15. Constantine, M. G., Smith, L., Redington, R. M., & Owens, D. (2008). Racial microaggressions against black counseling and counseling psychology faculty: A central challenge in the multicultural counseling movement. Journal of Counseling & Development, 86(3), 348-355.
16. Constantine, M. G., & Sue, D. W. (2007). Perceptions of racial microaggressions among black supervisees in cross-racial dyads. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 142-153. doi: 10. 1037/0022-0167. 54. 2. 142.
17. Crawford, E. P. (2011). Stigma, racial microaggressions, and acculturation strategies as predictors of likelihood to seek counseling among black college students. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
18. Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96, 608-630.
19. David, E. J. R. (2008). A colonial mentality model of depression for Filipino Americans. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(2), 118-127.
20. De Oliveira Braga Lopez, R. (2011). Racial microaggressions and the black immigrants living in Portugal. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
21. Doucette, D. M. (2011). Trainees' beliefs of racial microaggressions in cross-cultural psychotherapy dyads. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
22. Dovido, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2000). Aversive racism and selective decisions: 1989-1999. Psychological Science, 11, 315-319.
23. Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., Kawakami, K., & Hodson, G. (2002). Why can't we just get along? Interpersonal biases and interracial distrust. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 8, 88-102.
24. Fletcher, M. A., & Cohen, J. (2009, Jan 19). Far fewer consider racism big problem: Little change, however, at local level. Washington Post, p. A6.
25. Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 61-89). New York: Academic Press.
26. Gee, G. C., & Ponce, N. (2010). Associations between racial discrimination and limited English proficiency with health-related quality of life among six Asian ethnic groups in California. American Journal of Public Health, 100, 888-895. doi: 10. 2105/AJPH. 2009. 178012.
27. Gee, G. C., Spencer, M., Chen, J., Yip, T., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2007a). The association between self-reported racial discrimination and 12-month DSM-IV mental disorders among Asian Americans nationwide. Social Science and Medicine, 64, 1984-1996.
28. Gee, G. C., Spencer, M., Chen, J., Yip, T., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2007b). A nationwide study of discrimination and chronic health conditions among Asian Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 97(7), 1275-1282.
29. Gomez, M., Khurshid, A., Freitag, M. B., & Lachuk, A. (2011). Microaggressions in graduate students' lives: How they are encountered and their consequences. Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies, 27(8), 1189-1199.
30. Goodstein, R. (2008). What's missing from the dialogue on racial microaggressions in counseling and therapy. American Psychologist, 63(4), 276-277. doi: 10. 1037/0003-066X. 63. 4. 276.
31. Granger, Jr., N. (2011). Perceptions of racial microaggressions among African American males in higher education: A heuristic inquiry. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
32. Grier-Reed, T. L. (2010). The African American Student Network: Creating sanctuaries and counterspaces for coping with racial microaggressions in higher education settings. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 49(2), 181-188.
33. Hall, J., & Fields, B. (2012). Race and microaggression in nursing knowledge and development. Advances in Nursing Science, 35, 25-38. doi: 10. 1097/ANS. 0b013e3182433b70.
34. Harrell, J. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 42-57.
35. Harrell, J. P., Halls, S., & Taliaferro, J. (2003). Physiological responses to racism and discrimination: An assessment of the evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 243-248.
36. Harris, R. S, Jr. (2009). Racial microaggression? How do you know?-revisited. American Psychologist, 64, 220. doi: 10. 1037/a0014749.
37. Harris, R. S. Jr. (2008). Racial microaggression? How do you know? American Psychologist, 63(4), 275-276. doi: 10. 1037/0003-066X. 63. 4. 275.
38. Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009). How does sexual minority stigma "Get under the skin"? A psychological mediation framework. Psychological Bulletin, 135(5), 707-730.
39. Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Dovidio, J. F., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Phills, C. E. (2009a). An implicit measure of anti-gay attitudes: Prospective associations with emotion regulation strategies and psychological distress. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 1316-1320.
40. Hatzenbuehler, M., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Dovidio, J. (2009b). How does stigma "get under the skin": The mediating role of emotion regulation. Psychological Science, 20(10), 1283-1289.
41. Henfield, M. S. (2011). Black male adolescents navigating microaggressions in a traditionally White school: A qualitative study. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 39(2), 141-155.
42. Herek, G. M. (2009). Hate crimes and stigma-related experiences among sexual minority adults in the United States: Prevalence estimates from a national probability sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 54-74.
43. Hernández, P., Carranza, M., & Almeida, R. (2010). Mental health professionals' adaptive responses to racial microaggressions: An exploratory study. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 41, 202-209. doi: 10. 1037/a0018445.
44. Hill, J. S., Kim, S., & Williams, C. D. (2010). The context of racial microaggressions against indigenous peoples: Same old racism or something new? In D. W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics and impact (pp. 105-122). New York, NY: Wiley.
45. Huber, L. (2011). Discourses of racist nativism in California public education: English dominance as racist nativist microaggressions. Educational Studies, 47(4), 379-401.
46. Hunter, R. L. (2011). A examination of workplace racial microaggressions and their effect on employee performance. (Masters thesis). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
47. Huynh, V. (2012). Ethnic microaggressions and the depressive and somatic symptoms of Latino and Asian American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(7), 831-846.
48. Johnston, M. P., & Nadal, K. L. (2010). Multiracial microaggressions: Exposing monoracism in everyday life and clinical practice. In D. W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact (pp. 123-144). New York, NY: Wiley.
49. Jones, J. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
50. Lau, M. Y., & Williams, C. D. (2010). Microaggressions research: Methodological review and recommendations. In D. W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics and impact (pp. 313-336). New York: Wiley.
51. Lin, A. I. (2011). Development and initial validation of the Asian American Racial Microaggressions Scale (AARMS): Exploring Asian American experience with racial microaggressions. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
52. Marshall, M. N. (1996). Sampling for qualitative research. Family Practice, 13, 522-526. doi: 10. 1093/fampra/13. 6. 522.
53. Mays, V. M., Cochran, S. D., & Barnes, N. W. (2007). Race, race-based discrimination, and health outcomes among African-Americans. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 201-225. doi: 10. 1146/annurev. psych. 57. 102904. 190212.
54. McCabe, J. (2009). Racial and gender microaggressions on a predominately White campus: Experiences of black, Latina/o and white undergraduates. Race, Gender and Class, 16, 133-151.
55. McConahay, J. B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale. In J. F. Dovido & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination and racism (pp. 91-126). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
56. Mercer, S. H., Zeigler-Hill, V., Wallace, M., & Hayes, D. M. (2011). Development and initial Validation of the Inventory of microaggressions against black individuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 457-469. doi: 10. 1037/a0024937.
57. Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress and mental health in lesbian, gay and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674-697.
58. Michael-Makri, S. (2010). Racial and ethnic minority graduate experiences with racial microaggressions in CACREP-Accredited programs. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
59. Mitchell, T. L. (2011). African American students' experiences attending a predominately White high school: A comparison of the perspectives of homegrown and transfer students. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
60. Monroe, S. M. (2008). Modern approaches to conceptualizing and measuring human life stress. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 33-52.
61. Morton, E. (2011). The incidence of racial microaggressions in the cross-racial counseling dyad. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
62. Murphy-Shigematsu, S. (2010). Microaggressions by supervisors of color. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 4, 16-18. doi: 10. 1037/a0017472.
63. Nadal, K. L. (2008a). Ethnic group membership, phenotype, and perceptions of racial discrimination for Filipino and Chinese Americans: Implications for mental health. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Proquest LLC.
64. Nadal, K. L. (2008b). Preventing racial, ethnic, gender, sexual minority, disability, and religious microaggressions: Recommendations for positive mental health. Prevention in Counseling Psychology: Theory, Research, Practice, and Training, 2, 22-27.
65. Nadal, K. L. Y. (2011a). Responding to racial, gender, and sexual orientation microaggressions in the workplace. In M. A. Paludi, C. R. Paludi, & R. DeSouza (Eds.), Praeger handbook on understanding and preventing workplace discrimination (Vol. 1 & 2, pp. 23-32). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger/ABC-CLIO.
66. Nadal, K. L. (2011b). The Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (REMS): Construction, reliability, and validity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 470-480. doi: 10. 1037/a0025193.
67. Nadal, K. L. Y., Vargas, K. E., Issa, V. M., Lyons, O. B., & Tobio, M. (2011a). Processes and struggles with racial microaggressions from the white American perspective: Recommendations for workplace settings. In M. A. Paludi, C. R. Paludi, & R. DeSouza (Eds.), Praeger handbook on understanding and preventing workplace discrimination (Vol. 1 & 2, pp. 155-180). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger/ABC-CLIO.
68. Nadal, K. L., Wong, Y., Griffin, K., Striken, J., Vargas, V., Widemann, M., et al. (2011b). Microaggressions and the multiracial experience. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 1, 36-44.
69. Nnawulezi, N. (2011). A exploration of racial microaggressions within domestic violence shelters. (Masters thesis). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
70. Okazaki, S. (2002). Beyond questionnaires: Conceptual and methodological innovations in Asian American Psychology. In G. C. Nagayama Hall & S. Okazaki (Eds.), Asian American psychology: The science of lives in context (pp. 13-40). Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association.
71. Okazaki, S. (2009). Impact of racism on ethnic minority mental health. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 103-107.
72. Omi, M., & Winant, H. (1994). Racial formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
73. Outlaw, F. H. (1993). Stress and coping: The influence of racism on the cognitive appraisal processing of African Americans. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 14, 399-409.
74. Owen, J., Imel, Z., Tao, K. W., Wampold, B., Smith, A., & Rodolfa, E. (2011). Cultural ruptures in short-term therapy: Working alliance as a mediator between perceptions of microaggressions and therapy outcomes. Counseling & Psychotherapy Research, 11, 204-212. doi: 10. 1080/14733145. 2010. 491551.
75. Pierce, C. M. (1995). Stress analogs of racism and sexism: Terrorism, torture, and disaster. In C. Willie, P. Rieker, B. Kramer, & B. Brown (Eds.), Mental health, racism and sexism (pp. 277-293). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburg Press.
76. Poon, O. Y. A. (2010). "More complicated than an numbers game": A critical race theory examination of Asian Americans and racial climate. (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
77. Rivera, D. P., Forquer, E. E., & Rangel, R. (2010). Microaggressions and the life experience of Latina/o Americans. In D. W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestations, dynamics, and impact (pp. 59-83). New York, NY: Wiley.
78. Robinson, D. M. (2011). The perceived relationship between wellness and microaggressions in African American and Latina American female doctoral students in counselor education programs. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
79. Ruiz-Mesa, K. (2007). Diversity retention through micro practices. (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
80. Sauceda, E. (2010). Ethnic identity, perceptions of racial microaggressions, and perceptions of university environment as predictors of coping among Latina/o graduate students. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Proquest LLC.
81. Schacht, T. E. (2008). A broader view of microaggression in psychotherapy. AmericanPsychologist, 273. doi: 10. 1037/0003-066X63. 4. 273.
82. Schoulte, J., Schultz, J., & Altmaier, E. (2011). Forgiveness in response to cultural microaggressions. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 24, 291-300. doi: 10. 1080/09515070. 2011. 634266.
83. Sears, D. O. (1988). Symbolic racism. In P. Katz & D. Taylor (Eds.), Eliminating racism: Profiles in controversy (pp. 53-84). New York: Plenum Press.
84. Sechrist, G. B., Swim, J. K., & Mark, M. M. (2003). Mood as information in making attributions to discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 524-531.
85. Shah, P. (2008). Coping with perceived racial and ethnic discrimination in women of color in graduate education. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.
86. Smith, W. A., Hung, M., & Franklin, J. D. (2011). Racial battle fatigue and the "mis"education of black men: Racial microaggressions, societal problems, and environmental stress. Journal of Negro Education, 80(1), 63-82.
87. Solorzano, D., Ceja, M., & Yosso, T. (2000). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate: The experiences of African American college students. Journal of Negro Education, 69, 60-73.
88. Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613-629.
89. Sue, D. W. (2009). Racial microaggressions and worldviews. American Psychologist, 64, 220-221. doi: 10. 1037/a0015310.
90. Sue, D. W. (2010a). Microaggressions in everyday life: race, gender, and sexual orientation. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
91. Sue, D. W. (2010b). Microaggressions and marginality: manifestation, dynamics, and impact. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
92. Sue, D. W., Bucceri, J., Lin, A. I., Nadal, K. L., & Torino, G. C. (2009a). Racial microaggressions and the Asian American experience. Asian American Journal of Psychology, S(1). doi: 10. 1037/1948-1985. S. 1. 88.
93. Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., & Holder, A. B. (2008a). Racial microaggressions in the life experience of black Americans. Professional Psychology: Research & Practice, 39, 329-336. doi: 10. 1037/0735-7028. 39. 3. 329.
94. Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Nadal, K., & Torino, G. L. (2008b). Racial microaggressions and the power to define reality. American Psychologist, 277-279. doi: 10. 1037/0-03-066X. 63. 4. 277.
95. Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C., Torino, G., Bucceri, J., Holder, A., Nadal, K., et al. (2007a). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62, 271-286.
96. Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. B., Nadal, K. L., et al. (2007b). Racial microaggression in everyday life. American Psychologist, 62, 271-286. doi: 10. 1037/0003-066X. 62. 4. 271.
97. Sue, D. W., & Constantine, M. G. (2007). Racial microaggressions as instigators of difficult dialogues on race: Implications for student affairs educators and students. College Student Affairs Journal, 26(2), 136-143.
98. Sue, D. W., Lin, A. I., & Rivera, D. P. (2009b). Racial microaggressions in the workplace: Manifestations and impact. In J. L. Chin (Ed.), Diversity in mind and in action (Vol. 2, pp. 157-172). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
99. Sue, D. W., Lin, A. I., Torino, G. C., Capodilupo, C. M., & Rivera, D. P. (2009c). Racial microaggressions and difficult dialogues on race in the classroom. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15, 183-190. doi: 10. 1037/a0014191.
100. Sue, D. W., Nadal, K. L., Capodilupo, C. M., Lin, A. I., Torino, G. C., & Rivera, D. P. (2008c). Racial microaggressions against black Americans: Implications for counseling. Journal of Counseling & Development, 86(3), 330-338.
101. Sue, D. W., Rivera, D. P., Capodilupo, C. M., Lin, A. I., & Torino, G. C. (2010). Racial dialogues and white trainee fears: Implications for education and training. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 206-214. doi: 10. 1037/a0016112.
102. Sue, D. W., Rivera, D. P., Watkins, N. L., Kim, R. H., Kim, S., & Williams, C. D. (2011). Challenges faculty of color face in the classroom. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17, 331-340. doi: 10. 1037/a0024190.
103. Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2007). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
104. Sue, D. W., Torino, G. C., Capodilupo, C. M., Rivera, D. P., & Lin, A. I. (2009d). How white faculty perceive and react to difficult dialogues on race: Implications for education and training. The Counseling Psychologist, 37, 1090-1115. doi: 10. 1177/0011000009340443.
105. Tesler, M., & Sears, D. O. (2010). Obama's race: The 2008 election and the dream of a post-racial America. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
106. Thomas, K. R. (2008). Macrononsense in multiculturalism. American Psychologist, 63(4), 274-275. doi: 10. 1037/0003-066X. 63. 4. 274.
107. Torres, L., Driscoll, M. W., & Burrow, A. L. (2010). Racial microaggressions and psychological functioning among highly-achieving African Americans: A mixed-methods approach. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29, 1074-1099. doi: 10. 1521/jscp. 2010. 29. 10. 1074.
108. Torres-Harding, S. R., Andrade, A. R., & Romero Diaz, C. E. (2012). The Racial Microaggressions Scale (RMAS): A new scale to measure experiences of racial microaggressions in people of color. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18, 153-164. doi: 10. 1037/a0027658.
109. Wang, J., Leu, J., & Shoda, Y. (2011). When the seemingly innocuous "stings": Racial microaggressions and their emotional consequences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 1666-1678. doi: 10. 1177/0146167211416130.
110. Watkins, N. L., LaBarrie, T. L., & Appio, L. M. (2010). Black undergraduates experience with perceived racial microaggressions in predominately white colleges and universities. In D. W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestations, dynamics, and impact (pp. 25-58). New York, NY: Wiley.
111. Yasso, T. J., Smith, W. A., Ceja, M., & Solorzano, D. G. (2009). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate for Latina/o undergraduates. Harvard Education Review, 79(4), 659-690.