Psychopathy and violent reoffending in german-speaking countries: A meta-Analysis

European Journal of Psychological Assessment

Volumn 30, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 117-129

  Mokros, Andreas ^a   Vohs, Knut ^a   Habermeyer, Elmar ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF PSYCHIATRY   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

German; Likelihood ratio; Meta analysis; Psychopathy; Risk assessment

Indexed keywords

EID: 84898406155     PISSN: 10155759     EISSN: 21512426     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1027/1015-5759/a000178     Document Type: Article

References (102)

1. Blair, R. J. R. (1995). A cognitive developmental approach to morality: Investigating the psychopath. Cognition, 57, 1-29. doi: 10.1016/0010-0277(95) 00676-P
2. Blair, R. J. R. (2005). Responding to the emotions of others: Dissociating forms of empathy through the study of typical and psychiatric populations. Consciousness and Cognition, 14, 698-718. doi: 10.1016/j.concog. 2005.06.004
3. Boer, D. P., Hart, S. D., Kropp, P. R., &Webster, C. D. (1997). Manual for the Sexual Violence Risk - 20. Professional guidelines for assessing risk of sexual violence. Burnaby, BC: Simon Fraser University, Mental Health, Law, and Policy Institute.
4. Brenner, H., &Gefeller, O. (1997). Variation of sensitivity, specificity, likelihood ratios and predictive values with disease prevalence. Statistics in Medicine, 16, 981-991. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0258(19970515)16: 9<981::AIDSIM510> 3.0.CO;2-N
5. Buckholtz, J. W., Treadway, M. T., Cowan, R. L., Woodward, N. D., Benning, S. D., Li, R., &Zald, D. H. (2010). Mesolimbic dopamine reward system hypersensitivity in individuals with psychopathic traits. Nature Neuroscience, 13, 419-421. doi: 10.1038/nn.2510
6. Campbell, M. A., French, S., &Gendreau, P. (2009). The prediction of violence in adult offenders: A meta-analytic comparison of instruments and methods of assessment. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 567-590. doi: 10.1177/ 0093854809333610
7. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
8. Coid, J. W., &Ullrich, S. (2010). Antisocial personality disorder is on a continuum with psychopathy. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 51, 426-433. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych. 2009.09.006
9. Coid, J. W., Yang, M., Ullrich, S., Zhang, T., Sizmur, S., Roberts, C., Farrington, D. P., &Rogers, R. D. (2009). Gender differences in structured risk assessment: Comparing the accuracy of five instruments. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 337-348. doi: 10.1037/a0015155
10. Cooke, D. J., &Michie, C. (2010). Limitations of diagnostic precision and predictive utility in the individual case: A challenge for forensic practice. Law and Human Behavior, 34, 259-274. doi: 10.1007/s10979-009-9176-x
11. Cooke, D. J., Michie, C., Hart, S. D., &Hare, R. D. (1999). Evaluating the screening version of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL:SV): An item-response theory analysis. Psychological Assessment, 11, 3-13. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.11.1.3
12. Dahle, K.-P. (2005). Psychologische Kriminalprognose: Wege zu einer integrativen Methodik für die Beurteilung der Rü ckfallwahrscheinlichkeit bei Strafgefangenen [Psychological prognosis of criminal reoffending: Ways toward an integrative methodology for the assessment of the probability for reoffending among prison inmates]. Herbolzheim, Germany: Centaurus.
13. Dahle, K.-P. (2006). Strengths and limitations of actuarial prediction of criminal reoffence in a German prison sample: A comparative study of LSI-R, HCR-20 and PCL-R. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 29, 431-442. doi: 10.1016/j.ijlp.2006.03.001
14. Deeks, J., &Altman, D. G. (2004). Diagnostic tests 4: Likelihood ratios. British Medical Journal, 329, 168-169. doi: 10.1136/bmj.329.7458.168
15. Dolan, M., &Doyle, M. (2000). Violence risk prediction: Clinical and actuarial measures and the role of the Psychopathy Checklist. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 303-311. doi: 10.1192/bjp.177.4.303
16. Dwamena, B. A. (2007). Midas: A program for meta-analytical integration of diagnostic accuracy studies in Stata (Vol. 2011). Ann Arbor, MI: Division of Nuclear Medicine, Department of Radiology, University of Michigan Medical School.
17. Dwamena, B. A., Sylvester, R., &Carlos, R. C. (2009). midas: Meta-analysis of diagnostic accuracy studies [online document]. Retrieved from http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/bocode/ m/midas.pdf
18. Eher, R., &Rettenberger, M. (2009). Psychopathische Pers-nlichkeitscharakteristika bei einer Gruppe von verurteilten Sexualstraftätern: Zusammenhänge zwischen Tätertypus und Einfluss auf Rückfälligkeit [Psychopathic personality traits in a group of convicted sexual offenders: Relationships between offender type and influence on reoffending]. Neuropsychiatrie, 23(Suppl. 1), 1-6.
19. Eher, R., Rettenberger, M., Hirtenlehner, H., &Schilling, F. (2012). Dimensionale Struktur und prognostische Relevanz der PCL-R in einer Population Österreichischer Sexualstraftäter [Dimensional structure and prognostic relevance of the PCL-R in a population of Austrian sexual offenders]. Monatsschrift für Kriminologie und Strafrechtsreform, 95, 235-251.
20. Eisenbarth, H., Osterheider, M., Nedopil, N., &Stadtland, C. (2012). Recidivism in female offenders: PCL-R lifestyle factor and VRAG show predictive validity in a German sample. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 30, 575-584. doi: 10.1002/bsl.2013
21. Gendreau, P., Goggin, C., &Smith, P. (1999). Predicting recidivism: LSI-R vs. PCL-R. Canadian Psychology Abstracts, 40, 2a.
22. Gendreau, P., Little, T., &Goggin, C. (1996). A meta-analysis of the predictors of adult offender recidivism: What works- Criminology, 34, 575-607. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1996. tb01220.x
23. Gendreau, P., Goggin, C., &Smith, P. (2002). Is the PCL-R really the unparalleled measure of offender risk- A lesson in knowledge cumulation. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 29, 397-426. doi: 10.1177/0093854802029004004
24. Gendreau, P., Goggin, C., &Smith, P. (2003). Erratum. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30, 722-724. doi: 10.1177/ 0093854803256464
25. Gigerenzer, G., &Brighton, H. (2009). Homo heuristicus: Why biased minds make better inferences. Topics in Cognitive Science, 1, 107-143. doi: 10.1111/j.1756-8765.2008.01006.x
26. Glenn, A. L.,& Yang, Y. (2012). The potential role of the striatum in antisocial behavior and psychopathy. Biological Psychiatry, 72, 817-822. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.04.027
27. Graf, M., &Dittmann, V. (2007). Psychopathic disorders and the criminal law in Switzerland. In A. Felthous &H. Sass (Eds.), The international handbook on psychopathic disorders and the law (Vol. 2): Laws and policies (pp. 229-242). Chichester, UK: Wiley. doi: 10.1002/9780470772973.ch16
28. Guay, J.-P., Ruscio, J., Knight, R. A., &Hare, R. D. (2007). A taxometric analysis of the latent structure of psychopathy: Evidence for dimensionality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 701-716. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.116.4.701
29. Guy, L. S., &Douglas, K. S. (2006). Examining the utility of the PCL:SV as a screening measure using competing factor models of psychopathy. Psychological Assessment, 18, 225-230. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.18.2.225
30. Hanson, R. K., &Howard, P. D. (2010). Individual confidence intervals do not inform decision-makers about the accuracy of risk assessment evaluations. Law and Human Behavior, 34, 275-281. doi: 10.1007/s10979-010-9227-3
31. Hanson, R. K.,& Morton-Bourgon, K. (2005). The characteristics of persistent sexual offenders: A meta-analysis of recidivism studies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 1154-1163. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.73.6. 1154
32. Hanson, R. K., Morton, K. E., &Harris, A. J. R. (2003). Sexual offender recidivism risk. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 989, 154-166. doi: 10.1111/j.1749- 6632.2003.tb07303.x
33. Hanson, R. K., &Thornton, D. (2000). Improving risk assessments for sex offenders: A comparison of three actuarial scales. Law and Human Behavior, 24, 119-136. doi: 10.1023/A:1005482921333
34. Hare, R. D. (1980). A research scale for the assessment of psychopathy in criminal populations. Personality and Individual Differences, 1, 111-119. doi: 10.1016/0191- 8869(80)90028-8
35. Hare, R. D. (1991). Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R). Toronto, ON: Multi-Health Systems.
36. Hare, R. D. (2003). Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON: Multi-Health Systems.
37. Hare, R. D., &Neumann, C. S. (2008). Psychopathy as a clinical and empirical construct. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 217-246. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy. 3.022806.091452
38. Hare, R. D., &Neumann, C. S. (2010). The role of antisociality in the psychopathy construct: Comment on Skeem and Cooke (2010). Psychological Assessment, 22, 446-454. doi: 10.1037/a0013635
39. Harris, G., &Rice, M. E. (2007). Characterizing the value of actuarial violence risk assessments. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 1638-1658. doi: 10.1177/0093854807307029
40. Harris, G. T., &Rice, M. E. (2013). Bayes and base rates: What is an informative prior for actuarial violence risk assessment- Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 31, 103-124. doi: 10.1002/bsl.2048
41. Hasselblad, V., &Hedges, L. (1995). Meta-analysis of screening and diagnostic tests. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 167-178. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.167
42. Hart, S. D., &Cooke, D. J. (2013). Another look at the (im-)precision of individual risk estimates made using actuarial risk assessment instruments. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 31, 81-102. doi: 10.1002/bsl.2049
43. Hart, S. D., Cox, D. N., &Hare, R. D. (1995). Hare Psychopathy Checklist - Screening Version (PCL:SV). Toronto, ON: Multi-Health Systems.
44. Hart, S. D., Michie, C., &Cooke, D. J. (2007). Precision of actuarial risk assessment instruments: Evaluating the margins of error of group v. individual predictions of violence. British Journal of Psychiatry, 190(Suppl. 49), 60-65. doi: 10.1192/bjp.190.5.s60
45. Hawes, S. W., Boccaccini, M. T., &Murrie, D. C. (2013). Psychopathy and the combination of psychopathy and sexual deviance as predictors of sexual recidivism: Meta-analytic findings using the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised. Psychological Assessment, 25, 233-243. doi: 10.1037/a0030391
46. Hedges, L. V., &Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for metaanalysis. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
47. Hemphill, J. F., Hare, R. D., &Wong, S. (1998). Psychopathy and recidivism: A review. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 3, 139-170. doi: 10.1111/j.2044- 8333.1998.tb00355.x
48. Higgins, J. P. T., &Thompson, S. G. (2002). Quantifying heterogeneity in meta-analysis. Statistics in Medicine, 21, 1539-1558. doi: 10.1002/sim.1186
49. Hill, A., Habermann, N., Klusmann, D., Berner, W., &Briken, P. (2008). Criminal recidivism in sexual homicide perpetrators. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 52, 5-20. doi: 10.1177/ 0306624X07307450
50. Hill, C. D., Neumann, C. S., &Rogers, R. (2004). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) in offenders with axis I disorders. Psychological Assessment, 16, 90-95. doi: 10.1037/1040- 3590.16.1.90
51. Jeffreys, H. (1961). Theory of probability (3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
52. Kass, R. E., &Raftery, A. E. (1995). Bayes factors. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 90, 773-795. doi: 10.1080/01621459.1995. 10476572
53. Kennealy, P. J., Skeem, J. L., Walters, G. D., &Camp, J. (2010). Do core interpersonal and affective traits of PCL-R psychopathy interact with antisocial behavior and disinhibition to predict violence- Psychological Assessment, 22, 569-580. doi: 10.1037/a0019618
54. Klopf, J., Mitterauer, B., &Holzbauer, A. (2006). Katamnestische Ergebnisse der Begutachtung von 138 Straftätern zur Frage der bedingten Entlassung [Follow-up results on the mental health assessment of 138 offenders on the question of conditional release]. Neuropsychiatrie, 20, 64-70.
55. Lehmann, A., &Ittel, A. (2012). Aggressive behavior and measurement of psychopathy in female inmates of German prisons - A preliminary study. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 35, 190-197. doi: 10.1016/j.ijlp. 2012.02.007
56. Leistico, A.-M. R., Salekin, R. T., DeCoster, J., &Rogers, R. (2008). A large-scale meta-analysis relating the Hare measures of psychopathy to antisocial conduct. Law and Human Behavior, 32, 28-45. doi: 10.1007/s10979-007- 9096-6
57. Leygraf, N., &Elsner, K. (2007). Risks of diagnosing psychopathic disorders. In A. Felthous &H. Sass (Eds.), The international handbook of psychopathic disorders and the law (Vol. 1): Diagnosis and treatment (pp. 136-146). Chichester, UK: Wiley. doi: 10.1002/9780470516157.ch8
58. Lykken, D. T. (1957). A study of anxiety in the sociopathic personality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 55, 6-10. doi: 10.1037/h0047232
59. Miettinen, O. S., &Caro, J. J. (1994). Foundations of medical diagnosis: What actually are the parameters involved in Bayes- theorem- Statistics in Medicine, 13, 201-209. doi: 10.1002/sim.4780130302
60. Mokros, A., Hollerbach, P., Vohs, K., Nitschke, J., Eher, R., &Habermeyer, E. (2013). Normative data for the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised in German-speaking countries: A metaanalysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1177/0093854813492519
61. Mokros, A., Stadtland, C., Osterheider, M., &Nedopil, N. (2010). Assessment of risk for violent recidivism through multivariate Bayesian classification. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 16, 418-450. doi: 10.1037/a0021312
62. Molenberghs, G., &Verbeke, G. (2005). Models for discrete longitudinal data. New York, NY: Springer.
63. Monahan, J., &Silver, E. (2003). Judicial decision thresholds for violence risk management. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 2, 1-6. doi: 10.1080/14999013. 2003.10471174
64. Moons, K. G., van Es, G.-A., Deckers, J. W., Habbema, J. D. F., &Grobbee, D. E. (1996). Limitations of sensitivity, specificity, likelihood ratio, and Bayes- theorem in assessing diagnostic probabilities: A clinical example. Epidemiology, 8, 12-17. doi: 10.1097/00001648-199701000-00002
65. Mossman, D. (1994a). Assessing predictions of violence: Being accurate about accuracy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 783-792. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.62.4.783
66. Mossman, D. (1994b). Further comments on portraying the accuracy of violence predictions. Law and Human Behavior, 18, 587-593. doi: 10.1007/BF01499177
67. Mossman, D. (1995). Dangerousness decisions: An essay on the mathematics of clinical violence prediction and involuntary hospitalization. University of Chicago Law School Roundtable, 2, 95-138.
68. Mossman, D., &Berger, J. O. (2001). Intervals for posttest probabilities: A comparison of five methods. Medical Decision Making, 21, 498-507. doi: 10.1177/ 0272989X0102100608
69. Mossman, D., &Sellke, T. (2007). Avoiding errors about margins of error. British Journal of Psychiatry, 191, 561. doi: 10.1192/bjp.191.6.561
70. Mossman, D., &Somoza, E. (1992). Balancing risks and benefits: Another approach to optimizing diagnostic tests. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 4, 331-335.
71. Neumann, C. S., Hare, R. D., &Newman, J. P. (2007). The super-ordinate nature of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 102-117. doi: 10.1521/pedi.2007.21.2.102
72. Newman, J. P., &Kosson, D. S. (1986). Passive avoidance learning in psychopathic and nonpsychopathic offenders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 252-256. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.95.3.252
73. Quinsey, V. L., Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., &Cormier, C. A. (2006). Violent offenders: Appraising and managing risk (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
74. Paulhus, D., &Williams, K. M. (2002). The dark triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 556-563. doi: 10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00505-6
75. Rasch, W. (1985). Die Prognose im Massregelvollzug als kalkuliertes Risiko [Prognosis in forensic psychiatry as calculated risk]. In H.-D. Schwind (Ed.), Festschrift für Günter Blau zum 70. Geburtstag am 18. Dezember 1985 (pp. 309-325). Berlin, Germany: de Gruyter.
76. Ray, J. V., Hall, J., Rivera-Hudson, N., Poythress, N. G., &Lilienfeld, S. O. (2013). The relation between self-reported psychopathic traits and distorted response styles: A metaanalytic review. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 4, 1-14. doi: 10.1037/a0026482
77. Reichel, R., &Marneros, A. (2008). Prognostische Validität der PCL:SV zur Vorhersage krimineller Rückfälle bei deutschen Straftätern [Prognostic validity of the PCL:SV for the prediction of offense relapses in German criminal offenders]. Monatsschrift für Kriminologie und Strafrechtsreform, 91, 405-415.
78. Rettenberger, M., Matthes, A., Boer, D. P., &Eher, R. (2010). Prospective actuarial risk assessment: A comparison of five assessment instruments in different sexual offender subtypes. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 54, 169-186. doi: 10.1177/ 0306624X08328755
79. Rossegger, A., Urbaniok, F., Elbert, T., Fries, D., &Endrass, J. (2010). Räckfälligkeit nach Entlassung aus dem Strafvollzug in der Schweiz: Die Validität des HCR-20 [Reoffending after release from prison in Switzerland: The validity of the HCR-20]. Schweizer Archiv für Neurologie und Psychiatrie, 161, 254-259.
80. Ruscio, J. (2008). A probability-based measure of effect size: Robustness to base rates and other factors. Psychological Methods, 13, 19-30. doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.13.1.19
81. Salekin, R. T., Rogers, R., &Sewell, K. W. (1996). A review and meta-analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist and Psychopathy Checklist-Revised: Predictive validity of dangerousness. Clincial Psychology: Science and Practice, 3, 203-215. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2850.1996.tb00071.x
82. Schulze, R. (2004). Meta-analysis: A comparison of methods. Ashland, OH: Hogrefe &Huber.
83. Scurich, N., &John, R. S. (2012). A Bayesian approach to the group versus individual prediction controversy in actuarial risk assessment. Law and Human Behavior, 36, 237-246. doi: 10.1037/h0093973
84. Singh, J. P., Grann, M., &Fazel, S. (2011). A comparative study of violence risk assessment tools: A systematic review and metaregression analysis of 68 studies involving 25, 980 participants. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 499-513. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.11.009
85. Skeem, J. L., &Cooke, D. J. (2010a). Is criminal behavior a central component of psychopathy- Conceptual directions for resolving the debate. Psychological Assessment, 22, 433-445. doi: 10.1037/a0008512
86. Skeem, J. L., &Cooke, D. J. (2010b). One measure does not a construct make: Directions toward reinvigorating psychopathy research - Reply to Hare and Neumann (2010). Psychological Assessment, 22, 455-459. doi: 10.1037/a0014862
87. Skeem, J. L., &Monahan, J. (2011). Current directions in violence risk assessment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 38-42. doi: 10.1177/0963721410397271
88. Somoza, E., &Mossman, D. (1991). Biological markers and psychiatric diagnosis: Risk-benefit balancing using ROC analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 29, 811-826. doi: 10.1016/ 0006-3223(91)90200-6
89. Stadtland, C., Hollweg, M., Kleindienst, N., Dietl, J., Reich, U., &Nedopil, N. (2006). Rückfallprognosen bei Sexualstraftätern - Vergleich der prädiktiven Validität von Prognoseinstrumenten [Evaluation of risk assessment instruments for sex offenders]. Nervenarzt, 77, 587-595. doi: 10.1007/s00115-005-1945-2
90. Stadtland, C., Kleindienst, N., Kröner, C., Eidt, M., &Nedopil, N. (2005). Psychopathic traits and risk of criminal recidivism in offenders with and without mental disorders. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 4, 89-97. doi: 10.1080/14999013.2005.10471215
91. Urbaniok, F. (2004). Validität von Risikokalkulationen bei Straftätern - Kritik an einer methodischen Grundannahme und zukuänftige Perspektiven [Validity of risk calculations in offenders - Criticism of a basic methodological assumption, and future perspectives]. Fortschritte der Neurologie &Psychiatrie, 72, 260-269. doi: 10.1055/s-2004-818395
92. Urbaniok, F., Endrass, J., Rossegger, A., &Noll, T. (2007). Violent and sexual offences: A validation of the predictive quality of the PCL:SV in Switzerland. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 30, 147-152. doi: 10.1016/ j.ijlp.2006.04.001
93. Urbaniok, F., Noll, T., Rossegger, A., &Endrass, J. (2007). Die prädiktive Qualität der Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) bei Gewalt- und Sexualstraftätern in der Schweiz [The predictive quality of the Psychopathy Checklist- Revised (PCL-R) for violent and sex offenders in Switzerland: A validation study]. Fortschritte der Neurologie Psychiatrie, 75, 155-159. doi: 10.1055/s-2006-932203
94. Vitacco, M., Neumann, C. S., &Jackson, R. L. (2005). Testing of a four-factor model of psychopathy: Associations with gender, ethnicity, intelligence and violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 466-476. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.466
95. Walters, G. D., Gray, N. S., Jackson, R. L., Sewell, K. W., Rogers, R., Taylor, J., &Snowden, R. J. (2007). A taxometric analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV): Further evidence of dimensionality. Psychological Assessment, 19, 330-339. doi: 10.1037/1040- 3590.19.3.330
96. Walters, G. D., Knight, R. A., Grann, M., &Dahle, K.-P. (2008). Incremental validity of the Psychopathy Checklist facet scores: Predicting release outcome in six samples. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 396-405. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.117.2.396
97. Webster, C. D., Douglas, K. S., Eaves, D., &Hart, S. D. (1997). HCR-20: Assessing Risk for Violence (Version 2). Burnaby, BC: Simon Fraser University, Mental Health, Law, and Policy Institute.
98. Widiger, T. A., Cadoret, R., Hare, R. D., Robins, L., Rutherford, M., Zanarini, M., . . . Frances, A. (1996). DSM-IV antisocial personality disorder field trial. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 3-16. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X. 105.1.3
99. Wollert, R. (2006). Low base rates limit expert certainty when current actuarials are used to identify sexually violent predators: An application of Bayes-s theorem. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 12, 56-85. doi: 10.1037/1076- 8971.12.1.56
100. Woodworth, M., &Porter, S. (2002). In cold blood: Characteristics of criminal homicides as a function of psychopathy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 436-445. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.111.3.436
101. Yang, M., Wong, S. C. P., &Coid, J. (2010). The efficacy of violence prediction: A meta-analytic comparison of nine risk assessment tools. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 740-767. doi: 10.1037/a0020473
102. Zwinderman, A. H., &Bossuyt, P. M. (2008). We should not pool diagnostic likelihood ratios in systematic reviews. Statistics in Medicine, 27, 687-697. doi: 10.1002/sim.2992