Computational neuropsychiatry - Schizophrenia as a cognitive brain network disorder

Frontiers in Psychiatry

Volumn 5, Issue MAR, 2014, Pages

  Dauvermann, Maria R ^a   Whalley, Heather C ^a   Schmidt, André ^b,c   Lee, Graham L ^d   Romaniuk, Liana ^a   Roberts, Neil ^a   Johnstone, Eve C ^a   Lawrie, Stephen M ^a   Moorhead, Thomas W J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BASEL   (Switzerland)

^c UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL BASEL   (Switzerland)

^d MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

Cognition; Computational neuropsychiatry; Dopamine; Dynamic causal modeling; Fmri; Glutamate; Neurotransmitter; Schizophrenia

Indexed keywords

DOPAMINE; GLUTAMIC ACID;

BRAIN MAPPING; CAUSAL ATTRIBUTION; COMPUTATIONAL NEUROPSYCHIATRY; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; HUMAN; MATHEMATICAL MODEL; MEMORY DISORDER; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NEUROPSYCHIATRY; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SPATIAL MEMORY; VERBAL MEMORY; WORKING MEMORY;

EID: 84897995789     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16640640     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00030     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. MacDonald AW, Schulz SC. What we know: findings that every theory of schizophrenia should explain. Schizophr Bull (2009) 35:493-508. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbp017
2. Fusar-Poli P, Howes OD, Allen P, Broome M, Valli I, Asselin MC, et al. Abnormal frontostriatal interactions in people with prodromal signs of psychosis: a multimodal imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiatry (2010) 67(7):683-91. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.77
3. Gold JM. Cognitive deficits as treatment targets in Schizophrenia. Schizophr Res (2004) 72(1):21-8. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2004.09.008
4. Seidman LJ, Giuliano AJ, Meyer EC, Addington J, Cadenhead KS, Cannon TD, et al. Neuropsychology of the prodrome to psychosis in the NAPLS consortium: relationship to family history and conversion to psychosis. Arch Gen Psychiatry (2010) 67:578-88. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.66
5. Kim HS, Shin NY, Jang JH, Kim E, Shim G, Park HY, et al. Social cognition and neurocognition as predictors of conversion to psychosis in individuals at ultra-high risk. Schizophr Res (2011) 130:170-5. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2011.04.023
6. Genevsky A, Garrett CT, Alexander PP, Vinogradov S. Cognitive training in schizophrenia: a neuroscience-based approach. Dialogues Clin Neurosci (2010) 12(3):416-21.
7. Bora E, Murray RM. Meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in ultra-high risk to psychosis and first-episode psychosis: do the cognitive deficits progress over, or after the onset of psychosis? Schizophr Bull (2013). doi:10.1093/schbul/sbt085
8. Seshadri S, Zeledon M, Sawa A. Synapse-specific contributions in the cortical pathology of schizophrenia. Neurobiol Dis (2013) 53:26-35. doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2013.01.009
9. Kukla M, Davis LW, Lysaker PH. Cognitive behavioral therapy and work outcomes: correlates of treatment engagement and full and partial success in schizophrenia. Behav Cogn Psychother (2013). doi:10.1017/S1352465813000428
10. Tanaka S. Dopaminergic control of working memory and its relevance to schizophrenia: a circuit dynamics perspective. Neuroscience (2006) 139:153-71. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.08.070
11. Tan HY, Callicott JH, Weinberger DR. Dysfunctional and compensatory prefrontal cortical systems, genes and the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Cereb Cortex (2007) 17:i171-81. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhm069
12. Anticevic A, Gancsos M, Murray JD, Repovs G, Driesen NR, Ennis DJ, et al. NMDA receptor function in large-scale anticorrelated neural systems with implications for cognition and schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (2012) 109:16720-5. doi:10.1073/pnas.1208494109
13. Volk DW, Lewis DA. Prefrontal cortical circuits in schizophrenia. Curr Top Behav Neurosci (2010) 4:485-508. doi:10.1007/7854_2010_44
14. Kim JJ, Kwon JS, Park HJ, Youn DH, Kang MS, Kim MS, et al. Functional disconnection between the prefrontal and parietal cortices during working memory processing in schizophrenia: a [15(O)]H20 PET study. Am J Psychiatry (2003) 160(5):919-23. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.5.919
15. Honey GD, Fletcher PC. Investigating principles of human brain function underlying working memory: what insights from schizophrenia? Neuroscience (2006) 139:59-71. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.036
16. Abi-Dargham A, Mawlawi O, Lombardo I, Gil R, Martinez D, Huang Y, et al. Prefrontal dopamine D1 receptors and working memory in schizophrenia. J Neurosci (2002) 22(9):3708-19.
17. Poels EM, Kegeles LS, Kantrowitz JT, Javitt DC, Lieberman JA, Abi-Dargham A, et al. Glutamatergic abnormalities in schizophrenia: a review of proton MRS findings. Schizophr Res (2014) 152(2-3):325-32. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2013.12.013
18. Friston KJ, Harrison L, Penny W. Dynamic causal modelling. Neuroimage (2003) 19:1273-302. doi:10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00202-7
19. Friston KJ, Dolan RJ. Computational and dynamic models in neuroimaging. Neuroimage (2010) 52:752-65. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.12.068
20. Stephan KE, Friston KJ, Frith CD. Dysconnection in schizophrenia: from abnormal synaptic plasticity to failures of self-monitoring. Schizophr Bull (2009) 35:509-27. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn176
21. Stephan KE, Baldeweg T, Friston KJ. Synaptic plasticity and dysconnection in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry (2006) 59:929-39. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.10.005
22. Stephan KE, Mathys C. Computational approaches to psychiatry. Curr Opin Neurobiol (2014) 25:85-92. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2013.12.007
23. Howes OD, Kapur S. The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: version III - the final common pathway. Schizophr Bull (2009) 35:549-62. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbp006
24. Qi Z, Miller GW, Voit EO. Computational modeling of synaptic neurotransmission as a tool for assessing dopamine hypotheses of schizophrenia. Pharmacopsychiatry (2010) 43(Suppl 1):S50-60. doi:10.1055/s-0030-1248317
25. Coyle JT. NMDA receptor and schizophrenia: a brief history. Schizophr Bull (2012) 38(5):920-6. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs076
26. Coyle JT, Basu A, Benneyworth M, Balu D, Konopaske G. Glutamatergic synaptic dysregulation in schizophrenia: therapeutic implications. Handb Exp Pharmacol (2012) 2012:267-95. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-25758-2_10
27. Kantrowitz JT, Javitt DC. N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor dysfunction or dysregulation: the final common pathway on the road to schizophrenia? Brain Res Bull (2010) 83:108-21. doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2010.04.006
28. Delay J, Deniker P, Harl JM. Therapeutic use in psychiatry of phenothiazine of central elective action (4560 RP). Ann Med Psychol (Paris) (1952) 110(2):112-7.
29. Carlsson A. Does dopamine have a role in schizophrenia? Biol Psychiatry (1978) 13(1):3-21.
30. Emilien G, Maloteaux JM, Geurts M, Owen MJ. Dopamine receptors and schizophrenia: contribution of molecular genetics and clinical neuropsychology. Int J Neuropsychpharmacol (1999) 2(3):197-227. doi:10.1017/S1461145799001479
31. Seeman P, Lee T. Antipsychotic drugs: direct correlation between clinical potency and presynaptic action on dopamine neurons. Science (1975) 188:1217-9. doi:10.1126/science.1145194
32. Creese I, Burt DR, Snyder SH. Dopamine receptor binding predicts clinical and pharmacological potencies of antischizophrenic drugs. Science (1976) 192:481-3. doi:10.1126/science.3854
33. Seeman P, Lee T, Chau-Wong M, Wong K. Antipsychotic drug doses and neuroleptic/dopamine receptors. Nature (1976) 261:77-9. doi:10.1038/261717a0
34. Lieberman AN, Goldstein M, Gopinathan G, Nophytides A. D-1 and D-2 agonists in Parkinson's disease. Can J Neurol Sci (1987) 14(3 Suppl):466-73.
35. Snyder SH. The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: focus on the dopamine receptor. Am J Psychiatry (1976) 133(2):197-202.
36. Davis KL, Kahn RS, Ko G, Davidson M. Dopamine in schizophrenia: a review and reconceptualization. Am J Psychiatry (1991) 148:1474-86.
37. Kapur S, Seeman P. Does fast dissociation from the dopamine D(2) receptor explain the action of atypical antipsychotics? A new hypothesis. Am J Psychiatry (2001) 158:360-9. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.3.360
38. Pycock CJ, Kerwin RW, Carter CJ. Effect of lesion of cortical dopamine terminals on subcortical dopamine receptors in rats. Nature (1980) 286:74-6. doi:10.1038/286074a0
39. Scatton B, Worms P, Lloyd KG, Bartholini G. Cortical modulation of striatal function. Brain Res (1982) 232(2):331-43. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(82)90277-3
40. Heinz A. Dopaminergic dysfunction in alcoholism and schizophrenia - psychopathological and behavioral correlates. Eur Psychiatry (2002) 17(1):9-16. doi:10.1016/S0924-9338(02)00628-4
41. Kapur S. Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: a framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry (2003) 160(1):13-23. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.13
42. Howes OD, Kambeitz J, Kim E, Stahl D, Slifstein M, Abi-Dargham A, et al. The nature of dopamine dysfunction in schizophrenia and what this means for treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry (2012) 69(8):776-86. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2012.169
43. Fusar-Poli P, Meyer-Lindenberg A. Striatal presynaptic dopamine in schizophrenia, part I: meta-analysis of dopamine active transporter (DAT) density. Schizophr Bull (2013) 39(1):22-32. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbr111
44. Fusar-Poli P, Meyer-Lindenberg A. Striatal presynaptic dopamine in schizophrenia, part II: meta-analysis of [(18)F/(11)C]-DOPA PET studies. Schizophr Bull (2013) 39(1):33-42. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbr180
45. Krystal JH, Karper LP, Seibyl JP, Freeman GK, Delaney R, Bremner JD, et al. Subanesthetic effects of the noncompetitive NMDA antagonist, ketamine, in humans. Psychotomimetic, perceptual, cognitive, and neuroendocrine responses. Arch Gen Psychiatry (1994) 51(3):199-214. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950030035004
46. Abi-Saab WM, D'Souza DC, Moghaddam B, Krystal JH. The NMDA antagonist model for schizophrenia: promise and pitfalls. Pharmacopsychiatry (1998) 31(Suppl 2):104-9. doi:10.1055/s-2007-979354
47. Luby E, Cohen B, Rosenbaum G, Gottlieb J, Kelley J. Study of a new schizophrenomimetic drugs. AMA Arch Neurol Psychiatry (1959) 81:363-9. doi:10.1001/archneurpsyc.1959.02340150095011
48. Carlsson A, Waters N, Waters S, Carlsson ML. Network interactions in schizophrenia - therapeutic implications. Brain Res Brain Res Rev (2000) 31(2-3):342-9. doi:10.1016/S0165-0173(99)00050-8
49. Farber NB, Kim SH, Dikranian K, Jiang XP, Heinkel C. Receptor mechanisms and circuitry underlying NMDA antagonist neurotoxicity. Mol Psychiatry (2002) 7:32-43. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4000912
50. Javitt DC. Glutamate and schizophrenia: phencyclidine, N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors, and dopamine-glutamate interactions. Int Rev Neurobiol (2007) 78:69-108. doi:10.1016/S0074-7742(06)78003-5
51. Coyle JT. Glutamate and schizophrenia: beyond the dopamine hypothesis. Cell Mol Neurobiol (2006) 26:365-84. doi:10.1007/s10571-006-9062-8
52. Coyle JT, Balu D, Benneyworth M, Basu A, Roseman A. Beyond the dopamine receptor: novel therapeutic targets for treating schizophrenia. Dialogues Clin Neurosci (2010) 12(3):359-82.
53. Moghaddam B, Krystal JH. Capturing the angel in "angel dust": twenty years of translational neuroscience studies of NMDA receptor antagonists in animals and humans. Schizophr Bull (2012) 38:942-9. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs075
54. Javitt DC, Zukin SR, Heresco-Levy U, Umbricht D. Has an angel shown the way? Etiological and therapeutic implications of the PCP/NMDA model of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull (2012) 38:958-66. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs069
55. Javitt DC. Glutamatergic theories of schizophrenia. Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci (2010) 47(1):4-16.
56. GoffDC, Coyle JT. The emerging role of glutamate in the pathophysiology and treatment of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry (2001) 158:1367-77. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.9.1367
57. Heresco-Levy U, Ermilov M, Shimoni J, Shapira B, Silipo G, Javitt DC. Placebo-controlled trial of D-cycloserine added to conventional neuroleptics, olanzapine, or risperidone in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry (2002) 159(3):480-2. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.3.480
58. Lane HY, Chang YC, Liu YC, Chiu CC, Tsai GE. Sarcosine or D-serine add-on treatment for acute exacerbation of schizophrenia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry (2005) 62(11):1196-204. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.11.1196
59. Tzschentke TM. Pharmacology and behavioral pharmacology of the mesocortical dopamine system. Prog Neurobiol (2001) 63(3):241-320. doi:10.1016/S0301-0082(00)00033-2
60. Sesack SR, Carr DB. Selective prefrontal cortex inputs to dopamine cells: implications for schizophrenia. Physiol Behav (2002) 77(4-5):513-7. doi:10.1016/S0031-9384(02)00931-9
61. Krystal JH, D'Souza DC, Karper LP, Bennett A, Abi-Dargham A, Abi-Saab D, et al. Interactive effects of subanesthetic ketamine and haloperidol in healthy humans. Psychopharmacology (1999) 145(2):193-204. doi:10.1007/s002130051049
62. Driesen NR, McCarthy G, Bhagwagar Z, Bloch MH, Calhoun VD, D'Souza DC, et al. The impact of NMDA receptor blockade on human working memory-related prefrontal function and connectivity. Neuropsychopharmacology (2013) 38(13):2613-22. doi:10.1038/npp.2013.170
63. Moghaddam B, Adams B, Verma A, Daly D. Activation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by ketamine: a novel step in the pathway from NMDA receptor blockade to dopaminergic and cognitive disruptions associated with the prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci (1997) 17:2921-7.
64. Timofeeva OA, Levin ED. Glutamate and nicotinic receptor interactions in working memory: importance for the cognitive impairment of schizophrenia. Neuroscience (2011) 195:21-36. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.08.038
65. Fitzgerald PJ. The NMDA receptor may participate in widespread suppression of circuit level neural activity, in addition to a similarly prominent role in circuit level activation. Behav Brain Res (2012) 230:291-8. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2012.01.057
66. Arnsten AF, Wang MJ, Paspalas CD. Neuromodulation of thought: flexibilities and vulnerabilities in prefrontal cortical network synapses. Neuron (2012) 76:223-39. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.08.038
67. Stephan KE, Penny WD, Daunizeau J, Moran RJ, Friston KJ. Bayesian model selection for group studies. Neuroimage (2009) 46:1004-17. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.03.025
68. Dima D, Roiser JP, Dietrich DE, Bonnemann C, Lanfermann H, Emrich HM, et al. Understanding why patients with schizophrenia do not perceive the hollow-mask illusion using dynamic causal modelling. Neuroimage (2009) 46(4):1180-6. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.03.033
69. Dima D, Dietrich DE, Dillo W, Emrich HM. Impaired top-down processes in schizophrenia: a DCM study of ERPs. Neuroimage (2010) 52(3):824-32. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.12.086
70. Wagner G, Koch K, Schachtzabel C, Schultz CC, Gaser C, Reichenbach JR, et al. Structural basis of the fronto-thalamic dysconnectivity in schizophrenia: a combined DCM-VBM study. Neuroimage Clin (2013) 3:95-105. doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2013.07.010
71. Stephan KE, Friston KJ. Analyzing effective connectivity with fMRI. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Cogn Sci (2010) 1:446-59. doi:10.1002/wcs.58
72. Ogawa S, Lee TM, Kay AR, Tank DW. Brain magnetic resonance imaging with contrast dependent on blood oxygenation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (1990) 87:9868-72. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.24.9868
73. Cohen JD, Servan-Schreiber D. A theory of dopamine function and its role in cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull (1993) 19:85-104. doi:10.1093/schbul/19.1.85
74. Braver TS, Barch DM, Cohen JD. Cognition and control in schizophrenia: a computational model of dopamine and prefrontal function. Biol Psychiatry (1999) 46:312-28. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00116-X
75. Cohen JD, Servan-Schreiber D. Context, cortex, and dopamine: a connectionist approach to behavior and biology in schizophrenia. Psychol Rev (1992) 99:45-77. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.45
76. Cohen JD, Braver TS, O'Reilly RC. A computational approach to prefrontal cortex, cognitive control and schizophrenia: recent developments and current challenges. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci (1996) 351:1515-27. doi:10.1098/rstb.1996.0138
77. Smith EE, Jonides J. Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes. Science (1999) 283:1657-61. doi:10.1126/science.283.5408.1657
78. Collette F, Van der Linden M. Brain imaging of the central executive component of working memory. Neurosci Biobehav Rev (2002) 26:105-25. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(01)00063-X
79. Braver TS, Cohen JD, Nystrom LE, Jonides J, Smith EE, Noll DC. A parametric study of prefrontal cortex involvement in human working memory. Neuroimage (1997) 5:49-62. doi:10.1006/nimg.1996.0247
80. Cohen JD, Braver TS, Brown JW. Computational perspectives on dopamine function in prefrontal cortex. Curr Opin Neurobiol (2002) 12:223-9. doi:10.1016/S0959-4388(02)00314-8
81. Cools R, Gibbs SE, Miyakawa A, Jagust W, D'Esposito M. Working memory capacity predicts dopamine synthesis capacity in the human striatum. J Neurosci (2008) 28(5):1208-12. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4475-07.2008
82. Hazy TE, Frank MJ, O'Reilly RC. Banishing the homunculus: making working memory work. Neuroscience (2006) 139:105-18. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.04.067
83. Cole MW, Schneider W. The cognitive control network: integrated cortical regions with dissociable functions. Neuroimage (2007) 37:343-60. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.03.071
84. Lenartowicz A, McIntosh AR. The role of anterior cingulate cortex in working memory is shaped by functional connectivity. J Cogn Neurosci (2005) 17(7):1026-42. doi:10.1162/0898929054475127
85. Woodward TS, Cairo TA, RuffCC, Takane Y, Hunter MA, Ngan ET. Functional connectivity reveals load dependent neural systems underlying encoding and maintenance in verbal working memory. Neuroscience (2006) 139:317-25. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.043
86. Gazzaley A, Nobre AC. Top-down modulation: bridging selective attention and working memory. Trends Cogn Sci (2012) 16:129-35. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.11.014
87. Broome MR, Matthiasson P, Fusar-Poli P, Woolley JB, Johns LC, Tabraham P, et al. Neural correlates of executive function and working memory in the 'at-risk mental state'. Br J Psychiatry (2009) 194:25-33. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.107.046789
88. Liemburg EJ, Knegtering H, Klein HC, Kortekaas R, Aleman A. Antipsychotic medication and prefrontal cortex activation: a review of neuroimaging findings. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol (2012) 22:387-400. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.12.008
89. Rasetti R, Sambataro F, Chen Q, Callicott JH, Mattay VS, Weinberger DR. Altered cortical network dynamics: a potential intermediate phenotype for schizophrenia and association with ZNF804A. Arch Gen Psychiatry (2011) 68:1207-17. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.103
90. Barch DM, Carter CS, Braver TS, Sabb FW, MacDonald A III, Noll DC, et al. Selective deficits in prefrontal cortex function in medication-naive patients with schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry (2001) 58:280-8. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.58.3.280
91. Potkin SG, Turner JA, Brown GG, McCarthy G, Greve DN, Glover GH, et al. Working memory and DLPFC inefficiency in schizophrenia: the FBIRN study. Schizophr Bull (2009) 35:19-31. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn162
92. Brown GG, Thompson WK. Functional brain imaging in schizophrenia: selected results and methods. Curr Top Behav Neurosci (2010) 4:181-214. doi:10.1007/7854_2010_54
93. Manoach DS. Prefrontal cortex dysfunction during working memory performance in schizophrenia: reconciling discrepant findings. Schizophr Res (2003) 60:285-98. doi:10.1016/S0920-9964(02)00294-3
94. Wager TD, Smith EE. Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci (2003) 3:255-74. doi:10.3758/CABN.3.4.255
95. Glahn DC, Ragland JD, AbramoffA, Barrett J, Laird AR, Bearden CE, et al. Beyond hypofrontality: a quantitative meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of working memory in schizophrenia. Hum Brain Mapp (2005) 25(1):60-9. doi:10.1002/hbm.20138
96. van Snellenberg JX, Torres IJ, Thornton AE. Functional neuroimaging of working memory in schizophrenia: task performance as a moderating variable. Neuropsychology (2006) 20(5):497-510. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.20.5.497
97. Callicott JH, Bertolino A, Mattay VS, Langheim FJ, Duyn J, Coppola R, et al. Physiological dysfunction of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia revisited. Cereb Cortex (2000) 10:1078-92. doi:10.1093/cercor/10.11.1078
98. Callicott JH, Mattay VS, Verchinski BA, Marenco S, Egan MF, Weinberger DR. Complexity of prefrontal cortical dysfunction in schizophrenia: more than up or down. Am J Psychiatry (2003) 160:2209-15. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.12.2209
99. Thermenos HW, Goldstein JM, Buka SL, Poldrack RA, Koch JK, Tsuang MT, et al. The effect of working memory performance on functional MRI in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res (2005) 74(2-3):19-94. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2004.07.021
100. Tan HY, Sust S, Buckholtz JW, Mattay VS, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Egan MF, et al. Dysfunctional prefrontal regional specialization and compensation in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry (2006) 163(11):1969-77. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.11.1969
101. Quidé Y, Morris RW, Shepherd AM, Rowland JE, Green MJ. Task-related fronto-striatal functional connectivity during working memory performance in schizophrenia. Schiozphr Res (2013) 150(2-3):468-75. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2013.08.009
102. Perlstein WM, Carter CS, Noll DC, Cohen JD. Relation of prefrontal cortex dysfunction to working memory and symptoms in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry (2001) 158(7):1105-13. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.7.1105
103. Guerrero-Pedraza A, McKenna PJ, Gomar JJ, Sarró S, Salvador R, Amann B, et al. First-episode psychosis is characterized by failure of deactivation but not by hypo- or hyperfrontality. Psychol Med (2012) 42(1):73-84. doi:10.1017/S0033291711001073
104. Carter CS, Perlstein W, Ganguli R, Brar J, Mintun M, Cohen JD. Functional hypofrontality and working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry (1998) 155(9):1285-7.
105. Meyer-Lindenberg A, Poline JB, Kohn PD, Holt JL, Egan MF, Weinberger DR, et al. Evidence for abnormal cortical functional connectivity during working memory in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry (2001) 158(11):1809-17. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.11.1809
106. Meyer-Lindenberg AS, Olsen RK, Kohn PD, Brown T, Egan MF, Weinberger DR, et al. Regionally specific disturbance of dorsolateral prefrontal-hippocampal functional connectivity in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry (2005) 62(4):379-86. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.4.379
107. Friston KJ, Frith CD. Schizophrenia: a disconnection syndrome? Clin Neurosci (1995) 3(2):89-97.
108. Huys QJ, Moutoussis M, Williams J. Are computational models of any use to psychiatry? Neural Netw (2011) 24:544-51. doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2011.03.001
109. Montague PR, Dolan RJ, Friston KJ, Dayan P. Computational psychiatry. Trends Cogn Sci (2012) 16:72-80. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.11.018
110. Lewis DA, Moghaddam B. Cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia: convergence of gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamate alterations. Arch Neurol (2006) 63:1372-6. doi:10.1001/archneur.63.10.1372
111. Lewis DA, Gonzalez-Burgos G. Neuroplasticity of neocortical circuits in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology (2008) 33:141-65. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301563
112. Gonzalez-Burgos G, Hashimoto T, Lewis DA. Alterations of cortical GABA neurons and network oscillations in schizophrenia. Curr Psychiatry Rep (2010) 12:335-44. doi:10.1007/s11920-010-0124-8
113. Volk DW, Eggan SM, Lewis DA. Alterations in metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 alpha and regulator of G protein signaling 4 in the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry (2010) 167:1489-98. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10030318
114. Schwartz TL, Sachdeva S, Stahl SM. Glutamate neurocircuitry: theoretical underpinnings in schizophrenia. Front Pharmacol (2012) 3:195. doi:10.3389/fphar.2012.00195
115. Friston K. Beyond phrenology: what can neuroimaging tell us about distributed circuitry? Annu Rev Neurosci (2002) 25:221-50. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142846
116. McIntosh AR. Towards a network theory of cognition. Neural Netw (2000) 13:861-70. doi:10.1016/S0893-6080(00)00059-9
117. Daunizeau J, David O, Stephan KE. Dynamic causal modelling: a critical review of the biophysical and statistical foundations. Neuroimage (2011) 58:312-22. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.11.062
118. Daunizeau J, PreuschoffK, Friston KJ, Stephan KE. Optimizing experimental d esign for comparing models of brain function. PLoS Comput Biol (2011) 7:e1002280. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002280
119. Stephan KE, Kasper L, Harrison LM, Daunizeau J, den Ouden HE, Breakspear M, et al. Nonlinear dynamic causal models for fMRI. Neuroimage (2008) 42:649-62. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.04.262
120. Salinas E, Sejnowski TJ. Gain modulation in the central nervous system: where behavior, neurophysiology, and computation meet. Neuroscientist (2001) 7:430-40. doi:10.1177/107385840100700512
121. Volman V, Levine H, Sejnowski TJ. Shunting inhibition controls the gain modulation mediated by asynchronous neurotransmitter release in early development. PLoS Comput Biol (2010) 6:e1000973. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000973
122. Stephan KE, Harrison LM, Kiebel SJ, David O, Penny WD, Friston KJ. Dynamic causal models of neural system dynamics: current state and future extensions. J Biosci (2007) 32:129-44. doi:10.1007/s12038-007-0012-5
123. Tana MG, Montin E, Cerutti S, Bianchi AM. Exploring cortical attentional system by using fMRI during a continuous performance test. Comput Intell Neurosci (2010) 2010:329213. doi:10.1155/2010/329213
124. Wang L, Liu X, Guise KG, Knight RT, Ghajar J, Fan J. Effective connectivity of the fronto-parietal network during attentional control. J Cogn Neurosci (2010) 22:543-53. doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21210
125. Brazdil M, Mikl M, Marecek R, Krupa P, Rektor I. Effective connectivity in target stimulus processing: a dynamic causal modeling study of visual oddball task. Neuroimage (2007) 35:827-35. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.12.020
126. Tan HY, Chen AG, Kolachana B, Apud JA, Mattay VS, Callicott JH, et al. Effective connectivity of AKT1-mediated dopaminergic working memory networks and pharmacogenetics of anti-dopaminergic treatment. Brain (2012) 135:1436-45. doi:10.1093/brain/aws068
127. Crossley NA, Mechelli A, Fusar-Poli P, Broome MR, Matthiasson P, Johns LC, et al. Superior temporal lobe dysfunction and frontotemporal dysconnectivity in subjects at risk of psychosis and in first-episode psychosis. Hum Brain Mapp (2009) 30:4129-37. doi:10.1002/hbm.20834
128. Deserno L, Sterzer P, Wustenberg T, Heinz A, Schlagenhauf F. Reduced prefrontal-parietal effective connectivity and working memory deficits in schizophrenia. J Neurosci (2012) 32:12-20. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3405-11.2012
129. Schmidt A, Smieskova R, Aston J, Simon A, Allen P, Fusar-Poli P, et al. Brain connectivity abnormalities predating the onset of psychosis: correlation with the effect of medication. JAMA Psychiatry (2013) 70(9):903-12. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.117
130. Zhang H, Wei X, Tao H, Mwansisya TE, Pu W, He Z, et al. Opposite effective connectivity in the posterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex between first-episode schizophrenic patients with suicide risk and healthy controls. PLoS One (2013) 8:e63477. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0063477
131. Dayan P, Abbot LF. Theoretical Neuroscience: Computational and Mathematical Modeling of Neural Systems. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press (2000).
132. Li B, Daunizeau J, Stephan KE, Penny W, Hu D, Friston K. Generalised filtering and stochastic DCM for fMRI. Neuroimage (2011) 58:442-57. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.01.085
133. Allen P, Mechelli A, Stephan KE, Day F, Dalton J, Williams S, et al. Fronto-temporal interactions during overt verbal initiation and suppression. J Cogn Neurosci (2008) 20:1656-69. doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20107
134. Allen P, Stephan KE, Mechelli A, Day F, Ward N, Dalton J, et al. Cingulate activity and fronto-temporal connectivity in people with prodromal signs of psychosis. Neuroimage (2010) 49:947-55. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.08.038
135. Dauvermann MR, Whalley HC, Romaniuk L, Valton V, Owens DG, Johnstone EC, et al. The application of nonlinear dynamic causal modelling for fMRI in subjects at high genetic risk of schizophrenia. Neuroimage (2013) 73:16-29. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.01.063
136. Whalley HC, Simonotto E, Flett S, Marshall I, Ebmeier KP, Owens DG, et al. FMRI correlates of state and trait effects in subjects at genetically enhanced risk of schizophrenia. Brain (2004) 127:478-90. doi:10.1093/brain/awh070
137. Whalley HC, Simonotto E, Marshall I, Owens DG, Goddard NH, Johnstone EC, et al. Functional disconnectivity in subjects at high genetic risk of schizophrenia. Brain (2005) 128:2097-108. doi:10.1093/brain/awh556
138. Friston KJ, Shiner T, FitzGerald T, Galea JM, Adams R, Brown H, et al. Dopamine, affordance and active inference. PLoS Comput Biol (2012) 8(1):e1002327. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002327
139. Brodersen KJ, Deserno L, Schlagenhauf F, Lin Z, Penny WD, Buhmann JM, et al. Dissecting psychiatric spectrum disorders. Neuroimage Clin (2013) 4:98-111. doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2013.11.002
140. Durstewitz D, Seamans JK. The computational role of dopamine D1 receptors in working memory. Neural Netw (2002) 15(4-6):561-72. doi:10.1016/S0893-6080(02)00049-7
141. Murray JD, Anticevic A, Gancsos M, Ichinose M, Corlett PR, Krystal JH, et al. Linking microcircuit dysfunction to cognitive impairment: effects of disinhibition associated with schizophrenia in a cortical working memory model. Cereb Cortex (2012) 24(4):859-72. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs370
142. D'Ardenne K, Eshel N, Luka J, Lenartowicz A, Nystrom LE, Cohen JD. Role of prefrontal cortex and the midbrain dopamine system in working memory updating. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (2012) 109:19900-9. doi:10.1073/pnas.1116727109
143. den Ouden HE, Friston KJ, Daw ND, McIntosh AR, Stephan KE. A dual role for prediction error in associative learning. Cereb Cortex (2009) 19(5):1175-85. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn161
144. den Ouden HE, Daunizeau J, Roiser J, Friston KJ, Stephan KE. Striatal prediction error modulates cortical coupling. J Neurosci (2010) 30(9):3210-9. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4458-09.2010
145. Brodersen KH, Schofield TM, LeffAP, Ong CS, Lomakina EI, Buhmann JM, et al. Generative embedding for model-based classification of fMRI data. PLoS Comput Biol (2011) 7(6):e1002079. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002079
146. Stephan KE, Penny WD, Moran RJ, den Ouden HE, Daunizeau J, Friston KJ. Ten simple rules for dynamic causal modeling. Neuroimage (2010) 49(4):3099-109. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.11.015
147. Penny WD, Stephan KE, Mechelli A, Friston KJ. Comparing dynamic causal models. Neuroimage (2004) 22(3):1157-72. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.03.026
148. Penny WD, Stephan KE, Daunizeau J, Rosa MJ, Friston KJ, Schofield TM, et al. Comparing families of dynamic causal models. PLoS Comput Biol (2010) 6(3):e1000709. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000709
149. Lisman JE, Coyle JT, Green RW, Javitt DC, Benes FM, Heckers S, et al. Circuit-based framework for understanding neurotransmitter and risk gene interactions in schizophrenia. Trends Neurosci (2008) 31:234-42. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2008.02.005