Neural structures, functioning and connectivity in Generalized Anxiety Disorder and interaction with neuroendocrine systems: A systematic review

Journal of Affective Disorders

Volumn 158, Issue , 2014, Pages 114-126

  Hilbert, Kevin ^a   Lueken, Ulrike ^a   Beesdo Baum, Katja ^a  

^a DRESDEN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Germany)

Author keywords

Anxiety disorder; Connectivity; Endocrinology; fMRI; Generalized Anxiety Disorder; Neuroimaging

Indexed keywords

HYDROCORTISONE; SEROTONIN;

AMYGDALOID NUCLEUS; BRAIN; BRAIN SIZE; CINGULATE GYRUS; DSM-IV; FUNCTIONAL NEUROIMAGING; GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER; GRAY MATTER; HUMAN; HYDROCORTISONE RELEASE; HYPOTHALAMUS; LOCUS CERULEUS; NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM; NORADRENERGIC SYSTEM; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; POSTERIOR CINGULATE; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEROTONINERGIC SYSTEM; SUPERIOR TEMPORAL GYRUS; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; WHITE MATTER; ANXIETY DISORDER; CASE CONTROL STUDY; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; NEUROSECRETION; ORGAN SIZE; PATHOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY;

AMYGDALA; ANXIETY DISORDERS; CASE-CONTROL STUDIES; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; GRAY MATTER; HUMANS; NEUROSECRETORY SYSTEMS; ORGAN SIZE; PREFRONTAL CORTEX;

EID: 84896894914     PISSN: 01650327     EISSN: 15732517     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2014.01.022     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. C.G. Abdallah, J.D. Coplan, A. Jackowski, J.R. Sato, X. Mao, D.C. Shungu, and S.J. Mathew A pilot study of hippocampal volume and N-acetylaspartate (NAA) as response biomarkers in riluzole-treated patients with GAD Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 23 2013 276 284
2. A.M. Albano, and W.K. Silverman Guide to the Use of the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV-Child and Parent Versions 1996 Oxford University Press London
3. C.A. Alfano, K. Reynolds, N. Scott, R.E. Dahl, and T.A. Mellman Polysomnographic sleep patterns of non-depressed, non-medicated children with generalized anxiety disorder J. Affect. Disord. 147 2013 379 384
4. American Psychiatric Association, 2000. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, text revision (DSM-IV-TR), 4ed. APA, Washington, DC.
5. C. Andreescu, J.J. Gross, E. Lenze, K.D. Edelman, S. Snyder, C. Tanase, and H. Aizenstein Altered cerebral blood flow patterns associated with pathologic worry in the elderly Depress. Anxiety 28 2011 202 209
6. C. Andreescu, L.K. Sheu, D. Tudorascu, S. Walker, and H. Aizenstein The ages of anxiety-differences across the lifespan in the default mode network functional connectivity in generalized anxiety disorder Int. J. Geriatr Psychiatry 2013
7. G. Andrews, M.J. Hobbs, T.D. Borkovec, K. Beesdo, M.G. Craske, R.G. Heimberg, R.M. Rapee, A.M. Ruscio, and M.A. Stanley Generalized worry disorder: a review of DSM-IV generalized anxiety disorder and options for DSM-V Depress. Anxiety 27 2010 134 147
8. T.M. Ball, H.J. Ramsawh, L. Campbell-Sills, M.P. Paulus, and M.B. Stein Prefrontal dysfunction during emotion regulation in generalized anxiety and panic disorders Psychol. Med. 2012 1 12
9. A.T. Barker, R. Jalinous, and I.L. Freeston Non-invasive magnetic stimulation of human motor cortex Lancet 1 1985 1106 1107
10. M.S. Barr, F. Farzan, V.C. Wing, T.P. George, P.B. Fitzgerald, and Z.J. Daskalakis Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and drug addiction Int. Rev. Psychiatry 23 2011 454 466
11. K. Beesdo-Baum, E. Jenjahn, M. Hofler, U. Lueken, E.S. Becker, and J. Hoyer Avoidance, safety behavior, and reassurance seeking in generalized anxiety disorder Depress. Anxiety 29 2012 948 957
12. K. Beesdo, D.S. Pine, R. Lieb, and H.U. Wittchen Incidence and risk patterns of anxiety and depressive disorders and categorization of generalized anxiety disorder Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 67 2010 47 57
13. C.W. Berridge Noradrenergic modulation of arousal Brain Res. Rev. 58 2008 1 17
14. C.W. Berridge, B.E. Schmeichel, and R.A. Espana Noradrenergic modulation of wakefulness/arousal Sleep Med. Rev. 16 2012 187 197
15. B. Birmaher, D. Brent, L. Chiappetta, J. Bridge, S. Monga, and M. Baugher Psychometric properties of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a replication study J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc Psychiatry 38 1999 1230 1236
16. B. Birmaher, S. Khetarpal, D. Brent, M. Cully, L. Balach, J. Kaufman, and S.M. Neer The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 36 1997 545 553
17. K. Blair, J. Shaywitz, B.W. Smith, R. Rhodes, M. Geraci, M. Jones, D. McCaffrey, M. Vythilingam, E. Finger, K. Mondillo, M. Jacobs, D.S. Charney, R.J.R. Blair, W.C. Drevets, and D.S. Pine Response to emotional expressions in generalized social phobia and generalized anxiety disorder: Evidence for separate disorders Am. J. Psychiatry 165 2008 1193 1202
18. K.S. Blair, M. Geraci, B.W. Smith, N. Hollon, J. DeVido, M. Otero, J.R. Blair, and D.S. Pine Reduced dorsal anterior cingulate cortical activity during emotional regulation and top-down attentional control in generalized social phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, and comorbid generalized social phobia/generalized anxiety disorder Biol. Psychiatry 72 2012 476 482
19. T.D. Borkovec, O.M. Alcaine, and E. Behar Avoidance theory of worry and generalized anxiety disorder R.G. Heimberg, Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Advances in Research and Practice 2004 Guilford New York 77 108
20. P. Brambilla, G. Como, M. Isola, F. Taboga, R. Zuliani, S. Goljevscek, M. Ragogna, G. Brondani, M. Baiano, L. Perini, A. Ferro, M. Bazzocchi, C. Zuiani, and M. Balestrieri White-matter abnormalities in the right posterior hemisphere in generalized anxiety disorder: a diffusion imaging study Psychol. Med. 2011 1 8
21. J.C. Britton, Y. Bar-Haim, F.W. Carver, T. Holroyd, M.A. Norcross, A. Detloff, E. Leibenluft, M. Ernst, and D.S. Pine Isolating neural components of threat bias in pediatric anxiety J. Child. Psychol. Psychiatry 53 2012 678 686
22. T.A. Brown, and D.H. Barlow Classification of anxiety and mood disorders D.H. Barlow, Anxiety and Its Disorders 2 ed. 2002 Guilford Press New York, NY 292 329
23. C.A. Burghy, D.E. Stodola, P.L. Ruttle, E.K. Molloy, J.M. Armstrong, J.A. Oler, M.E. Fox, A.S. Hayes, N.H. Kalin, M.J. Essex, R.J. Davidson, and R.M. Birn Developmental pathways to amygdala-prefrontal function and internalizing symptoms in adolescence Nat. Neurosci. 15 2012 1736 1741
24. K.A. Buss, J.R. Schumacher, I. Dolski, N.H. Kalin, H.H. Goldsmith, and R.J. Davidson Right frontal brain activity, cortisol, and withdrawal behavior in 6-month-old infants Behav. Neurosci. 117 2003 11 20
25. A. Bystritsky, J.T. Kaplan, J.D. Feusner, L.E. Kerwin, M. Wadekar, M. Burock, A.D. Wu, and M. Iacoboni A preliminary study of fMRI-Guided rTMS in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder J. Clin. Psychiatry 69 2008 1092 1098
26. A.C. Chen, and A. Etkin Hippocampal network connectivity and activation differentiates post-traumatic stress disorder from generalized anxiety disorder Neuropsychopharmacology 2013
27. K.M. Connor, and J.R. Davidson Generalized anxiety disorder: neurobiological and pharmacotherapeutic perspectives Biol. Psychiatry 44 1998 1286 1294
28. S.G. Costafreda, M.J. Brammer, A.S. David, and C.H. Fu Predictors of amygdala activation during the processing of emotional stimuli: a meta-analysis of 385 PET and fMRI studies Brain Res. Rev. 58 2008 57 70
29. A.D. Craig Forebrain emotional asymmetry: a neuroanatomical basis? Trends Cogn. Sci. 9 2005 566 571
30. R.J. Davidson Anxiety and affective style: role of prefrontal cortex and amygdala Biol. Psychiatry 51 2002 68 80
31. R.J. Davidson, P. Ekman, C.D. Saron, J.A. Senulis, and W.V. Friesen Approach-withdrawal and cerebral asymmetry: emotional expression and brain physiology J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 58 1990 330 341
32. M. Davis Are different parts of the extended amygdala involved in fear versus anxiety? Biol. Psychiatry 44 1998 1239 1247
33. M.D. De Bellis, B.J. Casey, R.E. Dahl, B. Birmaher, D.E. Williamson, K.M. Thomas, D.A. Axelson, K. Frustaci, A.M. Boring, J. Hall, and N.D. Ryan A pilot study of amygdala volumes in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder Biol. Psychiatry 48 2000 51 57
34. M.D. De Bellis, M.S. Keshavan, H. Shifflett, S. Iyengar, R.E. Dahl, D.A. Axelson, B. Birmaher, J. Hall, G. Moritz, and N.D. Ryan Superior temporal gyrus volumes in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder Biol. Psychiatry 51 2002 553 562
35. K. Dedovic, A. Duchesne, J. Andrews, V. Engert, and J.C. Pruessner The brain and the stress axis: the neural correlates of cortisol regulation in response to stress Neuroimage 47 2009 864 871
36. E.K. Diekhof, K. Geier, P. Falkai, and O. Gruber Fear is only as deep as the mind allows a coordinate-based meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies on the regulation of negative affect Neuroimage 58 2011 275 285
37. A. Etkin, K.E. Prater, F. Hoeft, V. Menon, and A.F. Schatzberg Failure of anterior cingulate activation and connectivity with the amygdala during implicit regulation of emotional processing in generalized anxiety disorder Am. J. Psychiatry 167 2010 545 554
38. A. Etkin, K.E. Prater, A.F. Schatzberg, V. Menon, and M.D. Greicius Disrupted amygdalar subregion functional connectivity and evidence of a compensatory network in generalized anxiety disorder Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 66 2009 1361 1372
39. A. Etkin, and A.F. Schatzberg Common abnormalities and disorder-specific compensation during implicit regulation of emotional processing in generalized anxiety and major depressive disorders Am. J. Psychiatry 168 2011 968 978
40. A. Etkin, and T.D. Wager Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: a meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia Am. J. Psychiatry 164 2007 1476 1488
41. M. First, R. Spitzer, M. Gibbon, and J. Williams Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV 1997 American Psychiatric Press Washington.
42. M.F. Folstein, S.E. Folstein, and P.R. McHugh Mini-mental state. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician J. Psychiatr. Res. 12 1975 189 198
43. G. Gerra, A. Zaimovic, U. Zambelli, M. Timpano, N. Reali, S. Bernasconi, and F. Brambilla Neuroendocrine responses to psychological stress in adolescents with anxiety disorder Neuropsychobiology 42 2000 82 92
44. F.G. Graeff, and H. Zangrossi Jr. The dual role of serotonin in defense and the mode of action of antidepressants on generalized anxiety and panic disorders Cent. Nerv. Syst. Agents Med. Chem. 10 2010 207 217
45. T. Greenberg, J.M. Carlson, J. Cha, G. Hajcak, and L.R. Mujica-Parodi Ventromedial prefrontal cortex reactivity is altered in generalized anxiety disorder during fear generalization Depress. Anxiety 30 2013 242 250
46. A.E. Guyer, V.R. Choate, A. Detloff, B. Benson, E.E. Nelson, K. Perez-Edgar, N.A. Fox, D.S. Pine, and M. Ernst Striatal functional alteration during incentive anticipation in pediatric anxiety disorders Am. J. Psychiatry 169 2012 205 212
47. M. Hamilton The assessment of anxiety-states by rating Br. J. Med. Psychol. 32 1959 50 55
48. A.R. Hariri, V.S. Mattay, A. Tessitore, F. Fera, and D.R. Weinberger Neocortical modulation of the amygdala response to fearful stimuli Biol. Psychiatry 53 2003 494 501
49. K. Hek, N. Direk, R.S. Newson, A. Hofman, W.J. Hoogendijk, C.L. Mulder, and H. Tiemeier Anxiety disorders and salivary cortisol levels in older adults: a population-based study Psychoneuroendocrinology 2012
50. E. Hernandez, S. Lastra, M. Urbina, I. Carreira, and L. Lima Serotonin, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid and serotonin transporter in blood peripheral lymphocytes of patients with generalized anxiety disorder Int. Immunopharmacol. 2 2002 893 900
51. J.M. Hettema, B. Kettenmann, V. Ahluwalia, C. McCarthy, W.R. Kates, J.E. Schmitt, J.L. Silberg, M.C. Neale, K.S. Kendler, and P. Fatouros Pilot multimodal twin imaging study of generalized anxiety disorder Depress. Anxiety 29 2012 202 209
52. D.L. Hoffman, E.M. Dukes, and H.U. Wittchen Human and economic burden of generalized anxiety disorder Depress. Anxiety 25 2008 72 90
53. S.G. Hofmann, K.K. Ellard, and G.J. Siegle Neurobiological correlates of cognitions in fear and anxiety: a cognitive-neurobiological information- processing model Cogn. Emot. 26 2012 282 299
54. S.D. Hood, D.A. Hince, S.J.C. Davies, S. Argyropoulos, H. Robinson, J. Potokar, and D.J. Nutt Effects of acute tryptophan depletion in serotonin reuptake inhibitor-remitted patients with generalized anxiety disorder Psychopharmacology 208 2010 223 232
55. S.D. Hood, J.K. Melichar, L.G. Taylor, N. Kalk, T.R. Edwards, D.A. Hince, A. Lenox-Smith, A.R. Lingford-Hughes, and D.J. Nutt Noradrenergic function in generalized anxiety disorder: impact of treatment with venlafaxine on the physiological and psychological responses to clonidine challenge J. Psychopharmacol. 25 2011 78 86
56. T. Insel, B. Cuthbert, M. Garvey, R. Heinssen, D.S. Pine, K. Quinn, C. Sanislow, and P. Wang Research domain criteria (RDoC): toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders Am. J. Psychiatry 167 2010 748 751
57. N.J. Kalk, J. Melichar, R.B. Holmes, L.G. Taylor, M.R. Daglish, S. Hood, T. Edwards, A. Lennox-Smith, A.R. Lingford-Hughes, and D.J. Nutt Central noradrenergic responsiveness to a clonidine challenge in generalized anxiety disorder: a single photon emission computed tomography study J. Psychopharmacol. 26 2012 452 460
58. J. Kaufman, B. Birmaher, D. Brent, U. Rao, C. Flynn, P. Moreci, D. Williamson, and N. Ryan Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiatry 36 1997 980 988
59. R.C. Kessler, M. Petukhova, N.A. Sampson, A.M. Zaslavsky, and H.U. Wittchen Twelve-month and lifetime prevalence and lifetime morbid risk of anxiety and mood disorders in the United States Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res. 21 2012 169 184
60. A.L. Krain, K. Gotimer, S. Hefton, M. Ernst, F.X. Castellanos, D.S. Pine, and M.P. Milham A functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of uncertainty in adolescents with anxiety disorders Biol. Psychiatry 63 2008 563 568
61. I.M. Linares, C. Trzesniak, M.H. Chagas, J.E. Hallak, A.E. Nardi, and J.A. Crippa Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr. 34 2012 101 111
62. M. Macaluso, and S.H. Preskorn How biomarkers will change psychiatry: from clinical trials to practice. Part I: introduction J. Psychiatr Pract. 18 2012 118 121
63. V.G. Macefield Developments in autonomic research: a review of the latest literature Clin. Auton. Res. 19 2009 193 196
64. S. Machado, F. Paes, B. Velasques, S. Teixeira, R. Piedade, P. Ribeiro, A.E. Nardi, and O. Arias-Carrion Is rTMS an effective therapeutic strategy that can be used to treat anxiety disorders? Neuropharmacology 62 2012 125 134
65. R.C. Mantella, M.A. Butters, J.A. Amico, S. Mazumdar, B.L. Rollman, A.E. Begley, C.F. Reynolds, and E.J. Lenze Salivary cortisol is associated with diagnosis and severity of late-life generalized anxiety disorder Psychoneuroendocrinology 33 2008 773 781
66. J. Margraf Diagnostisches Kurz-Interview bei psychischen Störungen (Mini-DIPS) 1994 Springer Berlin
67. E. Maron, J.T. Kuikka, K. Ulst, J. Tiihonen, V. Vasar, and J. Shlik SPECT imaging of serotonin transporter binding in patients with generalized anxiety disorder Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 254 2004 392 396
68. E.I. Martin, K.J. Ressler, E. Binder, and C.B. Nemeroff The neurobiology of anxiety disorders: brain imaging, genetics, and psychoneuroendocrinology Clin. Lab. Med. 30 2010 865 (-+)
69. J. Maslowsky, K. Mogg, B.P. Bradley, E. McClure-Tone, M. Ernst, D.S. Pine, and C.S. Monk A preliminary investigation of neural correlates of treatment in adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 20 2010 105 111
70. S.J. Mathew, X. Mao, J.D. Coplan, E.L. Smith, H.A. Sackeim, J.M. Gorman, and D.C. Shungu Dorsolateral prefrontal cortical pathology in generalized anxiety disorder: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study Am. J. Psychiatry 161 2004 1119 1121
71. E.B. McClure, A. Adler, C.S. Monk, J. Cameron, S. Smith, E.E. Nelson, E. Leibenluft, M. Ernst, and D.S. Pine fMRI predictors of treatment outcome in pediatric anxiety disorders Psychopharmacology (Berl) 191 2007 97 105
72. E.B. McClure, C.S. Monk, E.E. Nelson, J.M. Parrish, A. Adler, R.J. Blair, S. Fromm, D.S. Charney, E. Leibenluft, M. Ernst, and D.S. Pine Abnormal attention modulation of fear circuit function in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 64 2007 97 106
73. D.S. Mennin, R.G. Heimberg, C.L. Turk, and D.M. Fresco Preliminary evidence for an emotion dysregulation model of generalized anxiety disorder Behav. Res. Ther. 43 2005 1281 1310
74. T.J. Meyer, M.L. Miller, R.L. Metzger, and T.D. Borkovec Development and validation of the penn state worry questionnaire Behav. Res. Ther. 28 1990 487 495
75. J. Mohlman, R.B. Price, D.A. Eldreth, D. Chazin, D.M. Glover, and W.R. Kates The relation of worry to prefrontal cortex volume in older adults with and without generalized anxiety disorder Psychiatry Res. 173 2009 121 127
76. C.S. Monk, E.E. Nelson, E.B. McClure, K. Mogg, B.P. Bradley, E. Leibenluft, R.J.R. Blair, G. Chen, D.S. Charney, M. Ernst, and D.S. Pine Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex activation and attentional bias in response to angry faces in adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder Am. J. Psychiatry 163 2006 1091 1097
77. C.S. Monk, E.H. Telzer, K. Mogg, B.P. Bradley, X.Q. Mai, H.M.C. Louro, G. Chen, E.B. McClure-Tone, M. Ernst, and D.S. Pine Amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex activation to masked angry faces in children and adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 65 2008 568 576
78. W.E. Moore, J.H. Pfeifer, C.L. Masten, J.C. Mazziotta, M. Iacoboni, and M. Dapretto Facing puberty: associations between pubertal development and neural responses to affective facial displays Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 7 2012 35 43
79. F.C. Murphy, I. Nimmo-Smith, and A.D. Lawrence Functional neuroanatomy of emotions: a meta-analysis Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 3 2003 207 233
80. S. Neufang, K. Specht, M. Hausmann, O. Gunturkun, B. Herpertz-Dahlmann, G.R. Fink, and K. Konrad Sex differences and the impact of steroid hormones on the developing human brain Cereb. Cortex 19 2009 464 473
81. J.B. Nitschke, I. Sarinopoulos, D.J. Oathes, T. Johnstone, P.J. Whalen, R.J. Davidson, and N.H. Kalin Anticipatory activation in the amygdala and anterior cingulate in generalized anxiety disorder and prediction of treatment response Am. J. Psychiatry 166 2009 302 310
82. M.E. Palm, R. Elliott, S. McKie, J.F.W. Deakin, and I.M. Anderson Attenuated responses to emotional expressions in women with generalized anxiety disorder Psychol. Med. 41 2011 1009 1018
83. J. Panksepp, T. Fuchs, and P. Iacobucci The basic neuroscience of emotional experiences in mammals: The case of subcortical FEAR circuitry and implications for clinical anxiety Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 129 2011 1 17
84. Y.M. Park, D.W. Kim, S. Kim, C.H. Im, and S.H. Lee The loudness dependence of the auditory evoked potential (LDAEP) as a predictor of the response to escitalopram in patients with generalized anxiety disorder Psychopharmacology 213 2011 625 632
85. Y.M. Park, S.H. Lee, S. Kim, and S.M. Bae The loudness dependence of the auditory evoked potential (LDAEP) in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, anxiety disorder, and healthy controls Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 34 2010 313 316
86. E. Paulesu, E. Sambugaro, T. Torti, L. Danelli, F. Ferri, G. Scialfa, M. Sberna, G.M. Ruggiero, G. Bottini, and S. Sassaroli Neural correlates of worry in generalized anxiety disorder and in normal controls: a functional MRI study Psychol. Med. 40 2010 117 124
87. R.H. Perlis Translating biomarkers to clinical practice Mol. Psychiatry 16 2011 1076 1087
88. R.B. Price, D.A. Eldreth, and J. Mohlman Deficient prefrontal attentional control in late-life generalized anxiety disorder: an fMRI investigation Transl. Psychiatry 1 2011 e46
89. D.A. Regier, W.E. Narrow, E.A. Kuhl, and D.J. Kupfer The conceptual development of DSM-V Am. J. Psychiatry 166 2009 645 650
90. L.N. Robins, J. Wing, H.-U. Wittchen, J.E. Helzer, and T.F. Babor et al. The Composite International Diagnostic Interview. An epidemiologic instrument suitable for use in conjunction with different diagnostic systems and in different cultures Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 45 1988 1069 1077
91. A.K. Roy, J.L. Fudge, C. Kelly, J.S. Perry, T. Daniele, C. Carlisi, B. Benson, F.X. Castellanos, M.P. Milham, D.S. Pine, and M. Ernst Intrinsic functional connectivity of amygdala-based networks in adolescent generalized anxiety disorder J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 52 2013 290 299
92. A. Schienle, F. Ebner, and A. Schafer Localized gray matter volume abnormalities in generalized anxiety disorder Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 261 2011 303 307
93. C. Sehlmeyer, S. Schoning, P. Zwitserlood, B. Pfleiderer, T. Kircher, V. Arolt, and C. Konrad Human fear conditioning and extinction in neuroimaging: a systematic review PLoS One 4 2009 e5865
94. D. Senkowski, M. Linden, D. Zubragel, T. Bar, and E. Gallinat Evidence for disturbed cortical signal processing and altered serotonergic neurotransmission in generalized anxiety disorder Biol. Psychiatry 53 2003 304 314
95. D.V. Sheehan, Y. Lecrubier, K.H. Sheehan, P. Amorim, J. Janavs, E. Weiller, T. Hergueta, R. Baker, and G.C. Dunbar The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10 Clin. Psychiatry. 59 Suppl 20 1998 522 533
96. L.M. Shin, and I. Liberzon The neurocircuitry of fear, stress, and anxiety disorders Neuropsychopharmacology 35 2010 169 191
97. V. Starcevic, M.E. Portman, and A.T. Beck Generalized anxiety disorder: between neglect and an epidemic J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 200 2012 664 667
98. S. Steudte, T. Stalder, L. Dettenborn, E. Klumbies, P. Foley, K. Beesdo-Baum, and C. Kirschbaum Decreased hair cortisol concentrations in generalised anxiety disorder Psychiatry Res. 186 2011 310 314
99. E.A. Stone, Y. Lin, Y. Sarfraz, and D. Quartermain The role of the central noradrenergic system in behavioral inhibition Brain Res. Rev. 67 2011 193 208
100. J.R. Strawn, S.M. Bitter, W.A. Weber, W.J. Chu, R.M. Whitsel, C. Adler, M.A. Cerullo, J. Eliassen, S.M. Strakowski, and M.P. Delbello Neurocircuitry of generalized anxiety disorder in adolescents: a pilot functional neuroimaging and functional connectivity study Depress. Anxiety 29 2012 939 947
101. J.R. Strawn, A.M. Wehry, W.J. Chu, C.M. Adler, J.C. Eliassen, M.A. Cerullo, S.M. Strakowski, and M.P. Delbello Neuroanatomic abnormalities in adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder: a voxel-based morphometry study Depress. Anxiety 30 2013 842 848
102. J.R. Strawn, A.M. Wehry, M.P. DelBello, M.A. Rynn, and S. Strakowski Establishing the neurobiologic basis of treatment in children and adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder Depress. Anxiety 29 2012 328 339
103. G.E. Tafet, D.J. Feder, D.P. Abulafia, and S.S. Roffman Regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity in response to cognitive therapy in patients with generalized anxiety disorder Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 5 2005 37 40
104. G.E. Tafet, V.P. Idoyaga-Vargas, D.P. Abulafia, J.M. Calandria, S.S. Roffman, A. Chiovetta, and M. Shinitzky Correlation between cortisol level and serotonin uptake in patients with chronic stress and depression Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 1 2001 388 393
105. G.E. Tafet, M. Toister-Achituv, and M. Shinitzky Enhancement of serotonin uptake by cortisol: a possible link between stress and depression Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 1 2001 96 104
106. R. Terlevic, M. Isola, M. Ragogna, M. Meduri, F. Canalaz, L. Perini, G. Rambaldelli, L. Travan, E. Crivellato, S. Tognin, G. Como, C. Zuiani, M. Bazzocchi, M. Balestrieri, and P. Brambilla Decreased hypothalamus volumes in generalized anxiety disorder but not in panic disorder J. Affect. Disord. 146 2012 390 394
107. M. Tops, A.A. Wijers, A.S. van Staveren, K.J. Bruin, J.A. Den Boer, T.F. Meijman, and J. Korf Acute cortisol administration modulates EEG alpha asymmetry in volunteers: relevance to depression Biol. Psychol. 69 2005 181 193
108. D.M. Torta, and F. Cauda Different functions in the cingulate cortex, a meta-analytic connectivity modeling study Neuroimage 56 2011 2157 2172
109. D.P. Tromp, D.W. Grupe, D.J. Oathes, D.R. McFarlin, P.J. Hernandez, T.R. Kral, J.E. Lee, M. Adams, A.L. Alexander, and J.B. Nitschke Reduced structural connectivity of a major frontolimbic pathway in generalized anxiety disorder Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 69 2012 925 934
110. B.G. van den Bulk, P.C.M.P. Koolschijn, P.H.F. Meensa, N.D.J. van Langa, N.J.A. van der Wee, S.A.R.B. Rombouts, R.R.J.M. Vermeiren, and E.A. Crone How stable is activation in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex in adolescence? A study of emotional face processing across three measurements Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 4 2012 65 76
111. J.T. Walkup, M.J. Labellarte, M.A. Riddle, D.S. Pine, L. Greenhill, R. Klein, M. Davies, M. Sweeney, H. Abikoff, S. Hack, B. Klee, J. McCracken, L. Bergman, J. Piacentini, J. March, S. Compton, J. Robinson, T. O'Hara, S. Baker, B. Vitiello, L. Ritz, and M. Roper Fluvoxamine for the treatment of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. The research unit on pediatric psychopharmacology anxiety study group N. Engl. J. Med. 344 2001 1279 1285
112. P.J. Whalen, T. Johnstone, L.H. Somerville, J.B. Nitschke, S. Polis, A.L. Alexander, R.J. Davidson, and N.H. Kalin A functional magnetic resonance imaging predictor of treatment response to venlafaxine in generalized anxiety disorder Biol. Psychiatry 63 2008 858 863
113. H.U. Wittchen, K. Beesdo, and R.C. Kessler The impact of generalized anxiety disorder D.J. Nutt, K. Rickels, D.J. Stein, Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Symptomatology, Pathogenesis and Management 2002 Martin Dunitz London, UK 11 26
114. H.U. Wittchen, R.C. Kessler, K. Beesdo, P. Krause, M. Hofler, and J. Hoyer Generalized anxiety and depression in primary care: prevalence, recognition, and management J. Clin. Psychiatry 63 Suppl 8 2002 S24 S34
115. M.A. Yassa, R.L. Hazlett, C.E.L. Stark, and R. Hoehn-Saric Functional MRI of the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis during conditions of uncertainty in generalized anxiety disorder J. Psychiatr. Res. 46 2012 1045 1052
116. A.H. Young Cortisol in mood disorders Stress 7 2004 205 208
117. L. Zhang, Y. Zhang, L.J. Li, Z.X. Li, W.H. Li, N. Ma, C.L. Hou, Z.J. Zhang, Z.Q. Zhang, L.F. Wang, L. Duan, and G.M. Lu Different white matter abnormalities between the first-episode, treatment-naive patients with posttraumatic stress disorder and generalized anxiety disorder without comorbid conditions J. Affect. Disord. 133 2011 294 299
118. Y. Zhang, L. Li, R. Yu, J. Liu, J. Tang, L. Tan, M. Liao, F. Yang, and B. Shan White matter integrity alterations in first episode, treatment-naive generalized anxiety disorder J. Affect. Disord. 148 2013 196 201