Linking assumptions in amblyopia

Visual Neuroscience

Volumn 30, Issue 5-6, 2013, Pages 277-287

  Levi, Dennis M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Amblyopia; Contrast sensitivity; Development; Noise; Physiology; Psychophysics

Indexed keywords

AMBLYOPIA; ANISOMETROPIA; BRAIN CELL; CONTRAST SENSITIVITY; EVOKED CORTICAL RESPONSE; HUMAN; HYPOTHESIS; LATERAL GENICULATE BODY; NERVE POTENTIAL; NOISE; NONHUMAN; PERCEPTIVE DISCRIMINATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOPHYSICS; RECEPTIVE FIELD; RETINA FOVEA; REVIEW; SECONDARY VISUAL CORTEX; SENSORY DYSFUNCTION; SENSORY NERVE CELL; STRIATE CORTEX; VISUAL ACUITY; VISUAL CORTEX;

AMBLYOPIA; CONTRAST SENSITIVITY; HUMANS; VISUAL CORTEX;

EID: 84896510643     PISSN: 09525238     EISSN: 14698714     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0952523813000023     Document Type: Review

References (132)

1. Aaen-Stockdale, C. & Hess, R.F. (2008). The amblyopic deficit for global motion is spatial scale invariant. Vision Research 48, 1965-1971.
2. Aaen-Stockdale, C., Ledgeway, T. & Hess, R.F. (2007). Second-order optic flow deficits in amblyopia. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 48, 5532-5538.
3. Astle, A.T., Webb, B.S. & McGraw, P.V. (2011). Can perceptual learning be used to treat amblyopia beyond the critical period of visual development? Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics 31, 564-573.
4. Barlow, H.B. (1957). Increment thresholds at low intensities considered as signal/noise discriminations. Journal of Physiology 136, 469-488.
5. Barnes, G.R., Hess, R.F., Dumoulin, S.O., Achtman, R.L. & Pike, G.B. (2001). The cortical deficit in humans with strabismic amblyopia. Journal of Physiology 533, 281-297.
6. Barnes, G.R., Li, X., Thompson, B., Singh, K.D., Dumoulin, S.O. & Hess, R.F. (2010). Decreased gray matter concentration in the lateral geniculate nuclei in human amblyopes. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 51, 1432-1438.
7. Baroncelli, L., Maffei, L. & Sale, A. (2011). New perspectives in amblyopia therapy on adults: A critical role for the excitatory/inhibitory balance. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 5, 25.
8. Barrett, B.T., Pacey, I.E., Bradley, A., Thibos, L.N. & Morrill, P. (2003). Nonveridical visual perception in human amblyopia. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 44, 1555-1567.
9. Bavelier, D., Levi, D.M., Li, R.W., Dan, Y. & Hensch, T.K. (2010). Removing brakes on adult brain plasticity: From molecular to behavioral interventions. Journal of Neuroscience 30, 14964-14971.
10. Bi, H., Zhang, B., Tao, X., Harwerth, R.S., Smith, E.L. III. & Chino, Y.M. (2011). Neuronal responses in visual area V2 (V2) of macaque monkeys with strabismic amblyopia. Cerebral Cortex 21, 2033-2045.
11. Bonhomme, G.R., Liu, G.T., Miki, A., Francis, E., Dobre, M.C., Modestino, E.J., Aleman, D.O., & Haselgrove, J.C. (2006). Decreased cortical activation in response to a motion stimulus in anisometropic amblyopic eyes using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of AAPOS: The Official Publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 10, 540-546.
12. Bonneh, Y.S., Sagi, D. & Polat, U. (2007). Spatial and temporal crowding in amblyopia. Vision Research 47, 1950-1962.
13. Bradley, A. & Freeman, R.D. (1981). Contrast sensitivity in anisometropic amblyopia. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 21, 467-476.
14. Burgess, A.E. & Colborne, B. (1988). Visual signal detection. IV. Observer inconsistency. Journal of the Optical Society of America. A, Optics and Image Science 5, 617-627.
15. Chandna, A., Pennefather, P.M., Kovacs, I. & Norcia, A.M. (2001). Contour integration deficits in anisometropic amblyopia. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 42, 875-878.
16. Chung, S.T., Li, R.W. & Levi, D.M. (2006). Identification of contrast-defined letters benefits from perceptual learning in adults with amblyopia. Vision Research 46, 3853-3861.
17. Cohen, M.R. & Newsome, W.T. (2009). Estimates of the contribution of single neurons to perception depend on timescale and noise correlation. Journal of Neuroscience 29, 6635-6648.
18. Conner, I.P., Odom, J.V., Schwartz, T.L. & Mendola, J.D. (2007). Monocular activation of V1 and V2 in amblyopic adults measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of AAPOS: The Official Publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 11, 341-350.
19. Constantinescu, T., Schmidt, L., Watson, R. & Hess, R.F. (2005). A residual deficit for global motion processing after acuity recovery in deprivation amblyopia. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 46, 3008-3012.
20. Dallala, R., Wang, Y.Z. & Hess, R.F. (2010). The global shape detection deficit in strabismic amblyopia: Contribution of local orientation and position. Vision Research 50, 1612-1617.
21. Demanins, R. & Hess, R.F. (1998). Positional loss in strabismic amblyopia: Inter-relationship of alignment threshold, bias, spatial scale and eccentricity. Vision Research 36, 2771-2794.
22. Eggers, H.M. & Blakemore, C. (1978). Physiological basis of anisome-tropic amblyopia. Science 201, 264-267.
23. Ellemberg, D., Lewis, T.L., Maurer, D., Brar, S. & Brent, H.P. (2002). Better perception of global motion after monocular than after binocular deprivation. Vision Research 42, 169-179.
24. El-Shamayleh, Y., Kiorpes, L., Kohn, A. & Movshon, J.A. (2010). Visual motion processing by neurons in area MT of macaque monkeys with experimental amblyopia. Journal of Neuroscience 30, 12198-12209.
25. Farzin, F. & Norcia, A.M. (2011). Impaired visual decision-making in individuals with amblyopia. Journal of Vision 11, (14). pii: 6. doi: 10.1167/11.14.6.
26. Field, D.J. & Hess, R.F. (1996). Uncalibrated distortions vs undersampling. Vision Research 36, 2121-2124.
27. Flom, M.C., Weymouth, F.W. & Kahneman, D. (1963). Visual resolution and contour interaction. Journal of Optical Society of America 53, 1026-1032.
28. Gold, J.M., Bennett, P.J. & Sekuler, A.B. (1999). Signal but not noise changes with perceptual learning. Nature 402, 176-178.
29. Gold, J.M., Murray, R.F., Bennett, P.J. & Sekuler, A.B. (2000). Deriving behavioural receptive fields for visually completed contours. Current Biology: CB 10, 663-666.
30. Goodyear, B.G., Nicolle, D.A., Humphrey, G.K. & Menon, R.S. (2000). BOLD fMRI response of early visual areas to perceived contrast in human amblyopia. Journal of Neurophysiology 84, 1907-1913.
31. Graham, N. (1989). Visual Pattern Analyzers. New York: Oxford University Press.
32. Green, D.M. (1964). Consistency of auditory detection judgements. Psychological Review 71, 392-407.
33. Hariharan, S., Levi, D.M. & Klein, S.A. (2005). "Crowding" in normal and amblyopic vision assessed with Gaussian and Gabor C's. Vision Research 45, 617-633.
34. Harwerth, R.S. & Smith, E.L. III. (1985). Rhesus monkey as a model for normal vision of humans. American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics 62, 633-641.
35. Hayward, J., Truong, G., Partanen, M. & Giaschi, D. (2011). Effects of speed, age, and amblyopia on the perception of motion-defined form. Vision Research 51, 2216-2223.
36. Hess, R.F. (1980). A preliminary investigation of neural function and dysfunction in amblyopia-I. Size-selective channels. Vision Research 20, 749-754.
37. Hess, R.F. (1982). Developmental sensory impairment: Amblyopia or tarachopia. Human Neurobiology 1, 17-29.
38. Hess, R.F. & Bradley, A. (1980). Contrast perception above threshold is only minimally impaired in human amblyopia. Nature 287, 463-464.
39. Hess, R.F., Bradley, A. & Piotrowski, L. (1983). Contrast-coding in amblyopia. I. Differences in the neural basis of human amblyopia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. Royal Society 217, 309-330.
40. Hess, R.F., Campbell, F.W. & Greenhalgh, T. (1978). On the nature of the neural abnormality in human amblyopia; neural aberrations and neural sensitivity loss. Pflugers Archiv: European Journal of Physiology 377, 201-207.
41. Hess, R.F. & Demanins, R. (1998). Contour integration in anisometropic amblyopia. Vision Research 38, 889-894.
42. Hess, R.F. & Field, D.J. (1994). Is the spatial deficit in strabismic amblyopia due to loss of cells or an uncalibrated disarray of cells? Vision Research 34, 3397-3406.
43. Hess, R.F. & Holliday, I.E. (1992). The spatial localization deficit in amblyopia. Vision Research 32, 1319-1339.
44. Hess, R.F. & Howell, E.R. (1977). The threshold contrast sensitivity function in strabismic amblyopia: Evidence for a two type classification. Vision Research 17, 1049-1055.
45. Hess, R.F. & Jacobs, R.J. (1979). A preliminary report of acuity and contour interactions across the amblyope's visual field. Vision Research 19, 1403-1408.
46. Hess, R.F., McIlhagga, W. & Field, D. (1997b). Contour integration in strabismic amblyopia: The sufficiency of an explanation based on positional uncertainty. Vision Research 37, 3145-3316.
47. Hess, R.F., Thompson, B., Gole, G. & Mullen, K.T. (2009). Deficient responses from the lateral geniculate nucleus in humans with amblyopia. The European Journal of Neuroscience 29, 1064-1070.
48. Hess, R.F., Wang, Y.Z., Demanins, R., Wilkinson, F. & Wilson, H.R. (1999). A deficit in strabismic amblyopia for global shape detection. Vision Research 39, 901-914.
49. Ho, C.S. & Giaschi, D. (2006). Deficient maximum motion displacement in amblyopia. Vision Research 46, 4595-4603.
50. Ho, C.S. & Giaschi, D. (2007). Stereopsis-dependent deficits in maximum motion displacement in strabismic and anisometropic amblyopia. Vision Research 47, 2778-2785.
51. Ho, C.S. & Giaschi, D. (2009). Low-and high-level motion perception deficits in anisometropic and strabismic amblyopia: Evidence from fMRI. Vision Research 49, 2891-2901.
52. Ho, C.S., Paul, P.S., Asirvatham, A., Cavanagh, P., Cline, R. & Giaschi, D.E. (2006). Abnormal spatial selection and tracking in children with amblyopia. Vision Research 46, 3274-3283.
53. Hou, C., Pettet, M.W. & Norcia, A.M. (2008). Abnormalities of coherent motion processing in strabismic amblyopia: Visual-evoked potential measurements. Journal of Vision 8, 1-12.
54. Huang, C.B., Lu, Z.L. & Zhou, Y. (2009). Mechanisms underlying perceptual learning of contrast detection in adults with anisometropic ambly-opia. Journal of Vision 9, 24.1-24.14. doi: 10.1167/9.11.24.
55. Hubel, D.H. & Wiesel, T.N. (1965). Comparison of the effects of unilateral and bilateral eye closure on cortical unit responses in kittens. Journal of Neurophysiology 28, 1029-1040.
56. Hubel, D.H., Wiesel, T.N. & LeVay, S. (1977). Plasticity of ocular dominance columns in monkey striate cortex. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 278, 377-409.
57. Ikeda, H. & Tremain, K.E. (1978). Amblyopia resulting from penalisation: Neurophysiological studies of kittens reared with atropinisation of one or both eyes. The British Journal of Ophthalmology 62, 21-28.
58. Ikeda, H. & Wright, M.J. (1976). Properties of LGN cells in kittens reared with convergent squint: A neurophysiological demonstration of ambly-opia. Experimental Brain Research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation Cerebrale 25, 63-77.
59. Imamura, K., Richter, H., Fischer, H., Lennerstrand, G., Franzen, O., Rydberg, A., Andersson, J., Schneider, H., Onoe, H., Watanabe, Y. & Langstrom, B. (1997). Reduced activity in the extrastriate visual cortex of individuals with strabismic amblyopia. Neuroscience Letters 225, 173-176.
60. Kind, P.C., Mitchell, D.E., Ahmed, B., Blakemore, C., Bonhoeffer, T. & Sengpiel, F. (2002). Correlated binocular activity guides recovery from monocular deprivation. Nature 416, 430-433.
61. Kiorpes, L. (2006). Visual processing in amblyopia: Animal studies. Strabismus 14, 3-10.
62. Kiorpes, L., Kiper, D.C., O'Keefe, L.P., Cavanaugh, J.R. & Movshon, J.A. (1998). Neuronal correlates of amblyopia in the visual cortex of macaque monkeys with experimental strabismus and anisometropia. Journal of Neuroscience 18, 6411-6424.
63. Kiorpes, L. & McKee, S.P. (1999). Neural mechanisms underlying amblyopia. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 9, 480-486.
64. Kozma, P. & Kiorpes, L. (2003). Contour integration in amblyopic monkeys. Visual Neuroscience 20, 577-588.
65. Lagreze, W.D. & Sireteanu, R. (1992). [Errors of monocular localization in strabismic amblyopia. Two-dimensional distortion]. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd 201, 92-96.
66. Lerner, Y., Hendler, T., Malach, R., Harel, M., Leiba, H., Stolovitch, C. & Pianka, P. (1996). Selective fovea-related deprived activation in retinotopic and high-order visual cortex of human amblyopes. Neuroimage 33, 169-179.
67. Levi, D.M. (2006). Visual processing in amblyopia: Human studies. Strabismus 14, 11-19.
68. Levi, D.M. (2012). Prentice award lecture 2011: Removing the brakes on plasticity in the amblyopic brain. Optometry and Vision Science: Official Publication of the American Academy of Optometry 89, 827-838.
69. Levi, D.M. & Harwerth, R.S. (1977). Spatio-temporal interactions in anisometropic and strabismic amblyopia. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 16, 90-95.
70. Levi, D.M. & Harwerth, R.S. (1978). Contrast evoked potentials in strabismic and anisometropic amblyopia. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 17, 571-575.
71. Levi, D.M. & Harwerth, R.S. (1982). Psychophysical mechanisms in humans with amblyopia. American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics 59, 936-951.
72. Levi, D.M., Hariharan, S. & Klein, S.A. (2002). Suppressive and facilitatory spatial interactions in amblyopic vision. Vision Research 42, 1379-1394.
73. Levi, D.M., Harwerth, R.S. & Smith, E.L. III. (1979). Humans deprived of normal binocular vision have binocular interactions tuned to size and orientation. Science 206, 852-854.
74. Levi, D.M. & Klein, S. (1982a). Hyperacuity and amblyopia. Nature 298, 268-270.
75. Levi, D.M. & Klein, S. (1982b). Differences in vernier discrimination for grating between strabismic and anisometropic amblyopes. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 23, 398-407.
76. Levi, D.M. & Klein, S.A. (1983). Spatial localization in normal and amblyopic vision. Vision Research 23, 1005-1017.
77. Levi, D.M. & Klein, S.A. (1985). Vernier acuity, crowding and amblyopia. Vision Research 25, 979-991.
78. Levi, D.M. & Klein, S.A. (1986). Sampling in spatial vision. Nature 320, 360-362.
79. Levi, D.M. & Klein, S.A. (1996). Limitations on position coding imposed by undersampling and univariance. Vision Research 36, 2111-2120.
80. Levi, D.M. & Klein, S.A. (2003). Noise provides some new signals about the spatial vision of amblyopes. Journal of Neuroscience 23, 2522-2526.
81. Levi, D.M., Klein, S.A. & Chen, I. (2005a). What is the signal in noise? Vision Research 45, 1835-1846.
82. Levi, D.M., Klein, S.A. & Chen, I. (2007a). The response of the amblyopic visual system to noise. Vision Research 47, 2531-2542.
83. Levi, D.M., Klein, S.A. & Chen, I. (2008). What limits performance in the amblyopic visual system: Seeing signals in noise with an amblyopic brain. Journal of Vision 8, 1-23.
84. Levi, D.M., Klein, S.A., Sharma, V. & Nguyen, L. (2000). Detecting disorder in spatial vision. Vision Research 40, 2307-2327.
85. Levi, D.M., Klein, S.A. & Wang, H. (1994a). Amblyopic and peripheral vernier acuity: A test-pedestal approach. Vision Research 34, 3265-3292.
86. Levi, D.M., Klein, S.A. & Wang, H. (1994b). Discrimination of position and contrast in amblyopic and peripheral vision. Vision Research 34, 3293-3313.
87. Li, R.W. & Levi, D.M. (2004). Characterizing the mechanisms of improvement for position discrimination in adult amblyopia. Journal of Vision 4, 476-487. doi: 10:1167/4.6.7.
88. Levi, D.M. & Li, R.W. (2009). Perceptual learning as a potential treatment for amblyopia: A mini-review. Vision Research 49, 2535-2549.
89. Levi, D.M., McKee, S.P. & Movshon, J.A. (2011). Visual deficits in anisometropia. Vision Research 51, 48-57.
90. Levi, D.M., Song, S. & Pelli, D.G. (2007b). Amblyopic reading is crowded. Journal of Vision 7, 21.1-21.17.
91. Levi, D.M. & Tripathy, S.P. (2006). Is the ability to identify deviations in multiple trajectories compromised by amblyopia? Journal of Vision 6, 1367-1379.
92. Levi, D.M., Waugh, S.J. & Beard, B.L. (1994c). Spatial scale shifts in amblyopia. Vision Research 34, 3315-3333.
93. Levi, D.M., Yu, C., Kuai, S.G. & Rislove, E. (2007c). Global contour processing in amblyopia. Vision Research 47, 512-524.
94. Li, X., Dumoulin, S.O., Mansouri, B. & Hess, R.F. (2007). Cortical deficits in human amblyopia: Their regional distribution and their relationship to the contrast detection deficit. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 48, 1575-1591.
95. Li, R.W., Klein, S.A. & Levi, D.M. (2008). Prolonged perceptual learning of positional acuity in adult amblyopia: Perceptual template retuning dynamics. Journal of Neuroscience 28, 14223-14229.
96. Li, R.W., Ngo, C., Nguyen, J. & Levi, D.M. (2011). Video-game play induces plasticity in the visual system of adults with amblyopia. PLoS Biology 9, e1001135. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001135.
97. Loshin, D.S. & Levi, D.M. (1983). Suprathreshold contrast perception in functional amblyopia. Documenta Ophthalmologica. Advances in Ophthalmology 55, 213-236.
98. Mansouri, B., Allen, H.A. & Hess, R.F. (2005). Detection, discrimination and integration of second-order orientation information in strabismic and anisometropic amblyopia. Vision Research 45, 2449-2460.
99. Mansouri, B. & Hess, R.F. (2006). The global processing deficit in amblyopia involves noise segregation. Vision Research 46, 4104-4117.
100. McIlhagga, W. & Paakkonen, A. (1999). Noisy templates explain area summation. Vision Research 39, 367-372.
101. McKee, S.P., Levi, D.M. & Movshon, J.A. (2003). The pattern of visual deficits in amblyopia. Journal of Vision 3, 380-405.
102. Muckli, L., Kiess, S., Tonhausen, N., Singer, W., Goebel, R. & Sireteanu, R. (2006). Cerebral correlates of impaired grating perception in individual, psychophysically assessed human amblyopes. Vision Research 46, 506-526.
103. Mussap, A.J. & Levi, D.M. (2000). Amblyopic deficits in detecting a dotted line in noise. Vision Research 40, 3297-3307.
104. Neri, P. & Levi, D.M. (2006). Receptive versus perceptive fields from the reverse-correlation viewpoint. Vision Research 46, 2465-2474.
105. Parker, A.J. & Newsome, W.T. (1998). Sense and the single neuron: Probing the physiology of perception. Annual Review of Neuroscience 21, 227-277.
106. Pelli, D.G. (1990). The quantum efficiency of vision. In Visual Coding and Efficiency, ed. Blakemore, C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
107. Pelli, D.G. & Farell, B. (1999). Why use noise? Journal of the Optical Society of America A 16, 647-653.
108. Pelli, D.G., Levi, D.M. & Chung, S.T. (2004). Using visual noise to characterize amblyopic letter identification. Journal of Vision 4, 904-920.
109. Peters, A. & Yilmaz, E. (1993). Neuronal organization in area 17 of cat visual cortex. Cerebral Cortex 3, 49-68.
110. Popple, A.V. & Levi, D.M. (2000). Amblyopes see true alignment where normal observers see illusory tilt. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 97, 11667-11672.
111. Popple, A.V. & Levi, D.M. (2008). The attentional blink in amblyopia. Journal of Vision 8, 12.1-12.19.
112. Pugh, M. (1958). Visual distortion in Amblyopia. British Journal of Ophthalmology, 42, 449-60.
113. Rentschler, I., Hilz, R. & Brettel, H. (1980). Spatial tuning properties in human amblyopia cannot explain the loss of optotype acuity. Behavioural Brain Research 1, 433-443.
114. Repka, M.X. & Holmes, J.M. (2012). Lessons from the amblyopia treatment studies. Ophthalmology 119, 657-658.
115. Rislove, E.M., Hall, E.C., Stavros, K.A. & Kiorpes, L. (2010). Scale-dependent loss of global form perception in strabismic amblyopia. Journal of Vision 10, 25.
116. Secen, J., Culham, J., Ho, C. & Giaschi, D. (2011). Neural correlates of the multiple-object tracking deficit in amblyopia. Vision Research 51, 2517-2527.
117. Shadlen, M., Britten, K., Newsome, W.T. & Movshon, J.A. (1996). A computational analysis of the relationship between neuronal and behavioral responses to visual motion. Journal of Neuroscience 16, 1486-1510.
118. Sharma, V., Levi, D.M. & Coletta, N.J. (1999). Sparse-sampling of gratings in the visual cortex of strabismic amblyopes. Vision Research 39, 3526-3536.
119. Sharma, V., Levi, D.M. & Klein, S.A. (2000). Undercounting features and missing features: Evidence for a high-level deficit in strabismic ambly-opia. Nature Neuroscience 3, 496-501.
120. Simmers, A.J. & Bex, P.J. (2004). The representation of global spatial structure in amblyopia. Vision Research 44, 523-533.
121. Simmers, A.J., Ledgeway, T., Hess, R.F. & McGraw, P.V. (2003). Deficits to global motion processing in human amblyopia. Vision Research 43, 729-738.
122. Simmers, A.J., Ledgeway, T., Mansouri, B., Hutchinson, C.V. & Hess, R.F. (2006). The extent of the dorsal extra-striate deficit in amblyopia. Vision Research 46, 2571-2580.
123. Sireteanu, R., Lagreze, W.D. & Constantinescu, D.H. (1993). Distortions in two-dimensional visual space perception in strabismic observers. Vision Research 33, 677-690.
124. Stuart, J.A. & Burian, H.M. (1962). A study of separation difficulty. Its relationship to visual acuity in normal and amblyopic eyes. American Journal of Ophthalmology 53, 471-477.
125. Teller, D.Y. (1984). Linking propositions. Vision Research 24, 1233-1246.
126. Tripathy, S.P. & Levi, D.M. (2008). On the effective number of tracked trajectories in amblyopic human vision. Journal of Vision 8, 8.1-8.22.
127. Wang, J., Ho, C. & Giaschi, D. (2007). Deficient motion-defined and texture-defined figure-ground segregation in amblyopic children. Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 44, 363-371.
128. Wang, H., Levi, D.M. & Klein, S.A. (1998). Spatial uncertainty and sampling efficiency in amblyopic position acuity. Vision Research 38, 1239-1251.
129. Watt, R.J. & Hess, R.F. (1987). Spatial information and uncertainty in anisometropic amblyopia. Vision Research 27, 661-674.
130. Wilson, H. (1991). Model of peripheral and amblyopic hyperacuity. Vision Research, 31, 967-982.
131. Wong, E.H. & Levi, D.M. (2005). Second-order spatial summation in amblyopia. Vision Research 45, 2799-2809.
132. Wong, E.H., Levi, D.M. & McGraw, P.V. (2001). Is second-order spatial loss in amblyopia explained by the loss of first-order spatial input? Vision Research 41, 2951-2960.