Tectonic control on 10Be-derived erosion rates in the Garhwal Himalaya, India

Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface

Volumn 119, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 83-105

  Scherler, Dirk ^a,b   Bookhagen, Bodo ^c   Strecker, Manfred R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF POTSDAM   (Germany)

^b CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

channel steepness; cosmogenic nuclides; erosion; Himalaya; stream power; tectonics

Indexed keywords

BERYLLIUM ISOTOPE; CRUSTAL SHORTENING; EROSION RATE; SOIL EROSION; TECTONICS; THRUST FAULT; UPLIFT;

GARHWAL HIMALAYAS; HIMALAYAS; INDIA; LESSER HIMALAYAS; UTTARAKHAND;

EID: 84896506257     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21699011     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/2013JF002955     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. Ader, T., et al. (2012), Convergence rate across the Nepal Himalaya and interseismic coupling on the Main Himalayan Thrust: Implications for seismic hazard, J. Geophys. Res., 117, B04403. doi: 10.1029/2011JB009071.
2. Ahmad, T., N. Harris, M. J. Bickle, H. J. Chapman, J. Bunbury, and, C. Prince, (2000), Isotopic constraints on the structural relationships between the Lesser Himalayan Series and the High Himalayan Crystalline Series, Garhwal Himalaya, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 112, 467-477.
3. Ahnert, F., (1970), Functional relationships between denudation, relief, and uplift in large mid-latitude basins, Am. J. Sci., 268, 243-263.
4. Andermann, C., A. Crave, R. Gloaguen, P. Davy, and, S. Bonnet, (2012), Connecting source and transport: Suspended sediments in the Nepal Himalayas, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 351-352, 158-170, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2012.06.059.
5. Arendt, A., et al. (2012), Randolph Glacier Inventory [v2.0]: A Dataset of Global Glacier Outlines, Global Land Ice Measurements from Space, Digital Media, Boulder Colorado, USA.
6. Avouac, J.-P., (2003), Mountain building, erosion, and the seismic cycle in the Nepal Himalaya, Adv. Geophys., 46, 1-80, doi: 10.1016/S0065-2687(03) 46001-9.
7. Bagnold, R. A., (1977), Bed load transport by natural rivers, Water Resour. Res., 13, 303-312, doi: 10.1029/WR013i002p00303.
8. 26Al measurements, Quat. Geochronol., 3, 174-195, doi: 10.1016/j.quageo.2007.12.001.
9. Barnad, P. L., L. A. Owen, M. C. Sharma, and, R. C. Finkel, (2001), Natural and human-induced landsliding in the Garhwal Himalaya of northern India, Geomorphology, 40, 21-35.
10. Barnes, J. B., Densmore, A. L., Mukul, M., Sinha, R., Jain, V., and, S. K. Tandon, (2011), Interplay between faulting and base level in the development of Himalayan frontal fold topography, J. Geophys. Res., 116, F03012, doi: 10.1029/2010JF001841.
11. Beaumont, C., R. A. Jamieson, M. H. Nguyen, and, B. Lee, (2001), Himalayan tectonics explained by extrusion of a low-viscosity crustal channel coupled to focused surface denudation, Nature, 414, 738-742, doi: 10.1038/414738a.
12. Bierman, P., and, E. J. Stieg, (1996), Estimating rates of denudation using cosmogenic isotope abundances in sediment, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 21, 125-139.
13. Binnie, S. A., W. M. Phillips, M. A. Summerfield, and, L. K. Fifield, (2006), Sediment mixing and basin-wide cosmogenic nuclide analysis in rapidly eroding mountainous environments, Quatern. Geochron., 1, 4-14, doi: 10.1016/j.quageo.2006.06.013.
14. Bollinger, L., J.-P. Avouac, O. Beyssac, E. J. Catlos, T. M. Harrison, M. Grove, B. Goffe, and, S. Sapkota, (2004), Thermal structure and exhumation history of the Lesser Himalaya in central Nepal, Tectonics, 23, TC5015, doi: 10.1029/2003TC001564.
15. Bookhagen, B., and, D. W. Burbank, (2006), Topography, relief, and TRMM-derived rainfall variations along the Himalaya, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L08405, doi: 10.1029/2006GL026037.
16. Bookhagen, B., and, D. W. Burbank, (2010), Toward a complete Himalayan hydrologic budget: Spatiotemporal distribution of snowmelt and rainfall and their impact on river discharge, J. Geophys. Res., 115, F03019, doi: 10.1029/2009JF001426.
17. Bookhagen, B., and, M. R. Strecker, (2012), Spatiotemporal trends in erosion rates across a pronounced rainfall gradient: Examples from the southern Central Andes, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 327-328, 97-110, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2012.02.005.
18. Bookhagen, B., R. C. Thiede, and, M. R. Strecker, (2005), Late Quaternary intensified monsoon phases control landscape evolution in the northwest Himalaya, Geology, 33, 149-152.
19. Bookhagen, B., D. Fleitmann, K. Nishiizumi, M. R. Strecker, and, R. Thiede, (2006), Holocene monsoonal dynamics and fluvial terrace formation in the northwest Himalaya, India, Geology, 34 (7), 601-604, doi: 10.1130/G22698.1.
20. Brocklehurst, S. H., and, K. X. Whipple, (2004), Hypsometry of glaciated landscapes, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 29, 907-926, doi: 10.1002/esp.1083.
21. 10Be in the Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 129, 193-202.
22. Burbank, D. W., J. Leland, E. Fielding, R. S. Anderson, N. Brozovic, M. R. Reid, and, C. Duncan, (1996), Bedrock incision, rock uplift and threshold hillslopes in the northwestern Himalayas, Nature, 379, 505-510.
23. Burbank, D. W., A. E. Blythe, J. Putkonen, B. Pratt-Sitaula, E. Gabet, M. Oskin, A. Barros, and, T. P. Ojha, (2003), Decoupling of erosion and precipitation in the Himalayas, Nature, 426, 652-655, doi: 10.1038/nature02187.
24. Caldwell, W. B., S. L. Klemperer, J. F. Lawrence, S. S. Rai, and, Ashish, (2013), Characterizing the Main Himalayan Thrust in the Garhwal Himalaya, India with receiver function CCP stacking, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 367, 15-27, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2013.02.009.
25. Cattin, R., and, J. P. Avouac, (2000), Modeling mountain building and the seismic cycle in the Himalaya of Nepal, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 13,389-13,407, doi: 10.1029/2000JB900032.
26. 3He from 39 to 46°N latitude, western USA and France, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 58, 249-255.
27. 10Be half-life by multicollector ICP-MS and liquid scintillation counting, Nucl. Instr. Meth. Res. B, 268, 192-199.
28. Clift, P. D., K. V. Hodges, D. Heslop, R. Hannigan, H. V. Long, and, G. Calves, (2008), Correlation of Himalayan exhumation rates and Asian monsoon intensity, Nat. Geosci., 1, 875-880, doi: 10.1038/ngeo351.
29. Cyr, A. J., D. E. Granger, V. Olivetti, and, P. Molin, (2010), Quantifying rock uplift rates using channel steepness and cosmogenic nuclide-determined erosion rates: Examples from northern and southern Italy, Lithosphere, 2 (3), 188-198, doi: 10.1130/L96.1.
30. 2 consumption in the Himalaya, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 66, 3397-3416.
31. DiBiase, R. A., and, K. X. Whipple, (2011), The influence of erosion thresholds and runoff variability on the relationships among topography, climate, and erosion rate, J. Geophys. Res., 116, F04036, doi: 10.1029/2011JF002095.
32. DiBiase, R. A., K. X. Whipple, A. M. Heimsath, and, W. B. Ouimet, (2010), Landscape form and millennial erosion rates in the San Gabriel Mountains, CA, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 289 (1-2), 134-144, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2009.10.036.
33. Dunne, J., D. Elmore, and, P. Muzikar, (1999), Scaling factors for the rates of production of cosmogenic nuclides for geometric shielding and attenuation at depth on sloped surfaces, Geomorphology, 27, 3-11.
34. Finnegan, N. J., G. Roe, D. R. Montgomery, and, B. Hallet, (2005), Controls on the channel width of rivers: Implications for modeling fluvial incision of bedrock, Geology, 33, 229-232, doi: 10.1130/G21171.1.
35. Fisher, G. B., B. Bookhagen, and, C. B. Amos, (2013), Channel planform geometry and slopes from freely available high-spatial resolution imagery and DEM fusion: Implications for channel width scalings, erosion proxies, and fluvial signatures in tectonically active landscapes, Geomorphology, doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.04.011.
36. Flint, J. J., (1974), Stream gradient as a function of order, magnitude, and discharge, Water Resour. Res., 10, 969-973.
37. France-Lanord, C., and, L. A. Derry, (1997), Organic carbon burial forcing of the carbon cycle from Himalayan erosion, Nature, 390, 65-66, doi: 10.1038/36324.
38. France-Lanord, C., M. Evans, J.-E. Hurtrez, and, J. Riotte, (2003), Annual dissolved fluxes from Central Nepal rivers: Budget of chemical erosion in the Himalayas, C. R. Geosci., 335, 1131-1140.
39. Gabet, E., D. W. Burbank, J. K. Putkonen, B. A. Pratt-Sitaula, and, T. Ojha, (2004), Rainfall thresholds for landsliding in the Himalayas of Nepal, Geomorphology, 63, 131-143, doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.03.011.
40. Gabet, E. J., D. W. Burbank, B. Pratt-Sitaula, J. Putkonen, and, B. Bookhagen, (2008), Modern erosion rates in the High Himalayas of Nepal, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 267 (3-4), 482-494, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2007.11.059.
41. Galy, A., and, C. France-Lanord, (2001), Higher erosion rates in the Himalaya: Geochemical constraints on riverine fluxes, Geology, 29, 23-26.
42. Galy, V., C. France-Lanord, O. Beyssac, P. Faure, H. Kudrass, and, F. Palhol, (2007), Efficient organic carbon burial in the Bengal fan sustained by the Himalayan erosional system, Nature, 450, 407-410.
43. Gansser, A., (1964), Geology of the Himalayas, pp. 289, Interscience, London.
44. Garzanti, E., G. Vezzoli, S. Ando, J. Lave, M. Attal, C. France-Lanord, and, P. DeCelles, (2007), Quantifying sand provenance and erosion (Marsyandi River, Nepal Himalaya), Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 258, 500-515, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2007.04.010.
45. Godard, V., R. Cattin, and, J. Lavé, (2004), Numerical modeling of mountain building: Interplay between erosion law and crustal rheology, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L23607, doi: 10.1029/2004GL021006.
46. 10Be concentrations in fluvial sediments of the Marsyandi catchment, central Nepal, J. Geophys. Res., 117, F03013, doi: 10.1029/2011JF002230.
47. Granger, D. E., J. W. Kirchner, and, R. Finkel, (1996), Spatially averaged long-term erosion rates measured from in situ-produced cosmogenic nuclides in alluvial sediment, J. Geol., 104, 249-257.
48. Hack, J. T., (1957), Studies of longitudinal stream profiles in Virginia and Maryland, U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Papers, 294-B, p. 97.
49. Harkins, N., E. Kirby, A. Heimsath, R. Robinson, and, U. Reiser, (2007), Transient fluvial incision in the headwaters of the Yellow River, northeastern Tibet, China, J. Geophys. Res., 112, F03S04, doi: 10.1029/2006JF000570.
50. Herman, F., et al. (2010), Exhumation, crustal deformation, and thermal structure of the Nepal Himalaya derived from the inversion of thermochronological and thermobarometric data and modeling of the topography, J. Geophys. Res., 115, B06407, doi: 10.1029/2008JB006126.
51. Hodges, K. V., C. Wobus, K. Ruhl, T. Schildgen, and, K. Whipple, (2004), Quaternary deformation, river steepening, and heavy precipitation at the front of the Higher Himalayan ranges, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 220, 379-389, doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(04)00063-9.
52. Howard, A. D., and, G. Kerby, (1983), Channel changes in badlands, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 94 (6), 739-752, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1983)94<739: CCIB>2.0.CO;2.
53. Huffman, G. J., R. F. Adler, D. T. Bolvin, G. Gu, E. J. Nelkin, K. P. Bowman, Y. Hong, E. F. Stocker, and, D. B. Wolff, (2007), The TRMM Multi-satellite Precipitation Analysis: Quasi-Global, Multi-Year, Combined-Sensor Precipitation Estimates at Fine Scales, J. Hydrometeor., 8, 38-55.
54. Hurtez, J.-E., F. Lucazeau, J. Lave, and, J.-P. Avouac, (1999), Investigation of the relationships between basin morphology, tectonic uplift, and denudation from the study of an active fold belt in the Siwalik Hills, central Nepal, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 12,779-12,796.
55. Jha, P. K., V. Subramanian, and, R. Sitasawad, (1988), Chemical and sediment mass transfer in the Yamuna River-A tributary of the Ganges system, J. Hydrol., 104, 237-246.
56. Kirby, E., and, K. X. Whipple, (2012), Expression of active tectonics in erosional landscapes, J. Struct. Geol., 44, 54-75.
57. Kirchner, J. W., R. C. Finkel, C. S. Riebe, D. E. Granger, J. L. Clayton, J. G. King, and, W. F. Megahan, (2001), Mountain erosion over 10 yr, 10 k.y., and 10 m.y. time scales, Geology, 29, 591-594.
58. Kohl, C. P., and, K. Nishiizumi, (1992), Chemical isolation of quartz for measurement of in-situ-produced cosmogenic nuclides, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 56, 3583-3587.
59. Koons, P. O., (1990), Two-sided orogen: Collision and erosion from the sandbox to the Southern Alps, New Zealand, Geology, 18, 679-682.
60. 10Be by Heavy-Ion Elastic Recoil Detection and liquid scintillation counting, Nucl. Instr. Meth. Res. B, 268, 187-191.
61. Kumar, R., S. K. Ghosh, R. K. Mazari, and, S. J. Sagode, (2003), Tectonic impact on the fluvial deposits of Plio-Pleistocene Himalayan foreland basin, India, Sediment. Geol., 158, 209-234, doi: 10.1016/S0037-0738(02)00267-1.
62. Lague, D., and, P. Davy, (2003), Constraints on the long-term colluvial erosion law by analyzing slope-area relationships at various tectonic uplift rates in the Siwaliks Hills (Nepal), J. Geophys. Res., 108, 2129, doi: 10.1029/2002JB001893.
63. Lague, D., N. Hovius, and, P. Davy, (2005), Discharge, discharge variability, and the bedrock channel profile, J. Geophys. Res., 110, F04006, doi: 10.1029/2004JF000259.
64. Lal, D., (1991), Cosmic ray labeling of erosion surfaces: In situ nuclide production rates and erosion models, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 104 (2-4), 424-439.
65. Lavé, J., and, J.-P. Avouac, (2000), Active folding of fluvial terraces across the Siwaliks Hills, Himalayas of central Nepal, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 5735-5770.
66. Lavé, J., and, J.-P. Avouac, (2001), Fluvial incision and tectonic uplift across the Himalayas of central Nepal, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 26,561-26,591.
67. 10Be-derived Himalayan denudation rates and sediment budgets in the Ganga basin, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 333-334, 146-156, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.04.020.
68. Masek, J. G., B. L. Isacks, T. L. Gubbels, and, E. J. Fielding, (1994), Erosion and tectonics at the margins of continental plateaus, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 13,941-13,956.
69. Milliman, J. D., and, J. D. M. Syvitski, (1992), Geomorphic/tectonic control of sediment discharge to the ocean: The importance of small mountainous rivers, J. Geol., 100, 525-544.
70. Montgomery, D. R., and, M. T. Brandon, (2002), Topographic controls on erosion rates in tectonically active mountain ranges, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 201, 481-489.
71. Montgomery, D. R., and, K. B. Gran, (2001), Downstream variations in the width of bedrock channels, Water Resour. Res., 37 (6), 1841-1846, doi: 10.1029/2000WR900393.
72. Montgomery, D. R., and, D. B. Stolar, (2006), Reconsidering Himalayan river anticlines, Geomorphology, 82, 4-15.
73. Niemi, N., M. Oskin, D. Burbank, A. Heimsath, and, E. Gabet, (2005), Effects of bedrock landslides on cosmogenically determined erosion rates, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 237, 480-498, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2005.07.009.
74. 10Be AMS standards, Nucl. Instr. Meth. Res. B, 258, 403-413.
75. Norton, K. P., F. von Blanckenburg, and, P. W. Kubik, (2011), Cosmogenic nuclide-derived rates of diffusive and episodic erosion in the glacially sculpted upper Rhone Valley, Swiss Alps, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 35, 651-662, doi: 10.1002/esp.1961.
76. Ouimet, W. B., K. X. Whipple, B. T. Crosby, J. P. Johnson, and, T. F. Schildgen, (2008), Epigenetic gorges in fluvial landscapes, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 33, 1993-2009, doi: 10.1002/esp.1650.
77. Ouimet, W. B., K. X. Whipple, and, D. E. Granger, (2009), Beyond threshold hillslopes: Channel adjustment to base-level fall in tectonically active mountain ranges, Geology, 37 (7), 579-582, doi: 10.1130/G30013A.1.
78. Owen, L. A., U. Kamp, G. A. Khattak, E. L. Harp, D. K. Keefer, and, M. A. Bauer, (2008), Landslides triggered by the 8 October 2005 Kashmir earthquake, Geomorphology, 94, 1-9.
79. Perron, J. T., and, L. Royden, (2012), An integral approach to bedrock river profile analysis, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 38, 570-576, doi: 10.1002/esp.3302.
80. Pinet, P., and, M. Souriau, (1988), Continental erosion and large-scale relief, Tectonics, 7, 563-582.
81. Powers, P. M., R. J. Lillie, and, R. S. Yeats, (1998), Structure and shortening of the Kangra and Dehra Dun reentrants, Sub-Himalaya, India, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 110, 1010-1027, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1998)110<1010: SASOTK>2.3.CO;2.
82. Pratt, B., D. W. Burbank, A. Heimsath, and, T. Ojha, (2002), Impulsive alluviation during early Holocene strengthened monsoons, central Nepal Himalaya, Geology, 30, 911-914, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0911:IADEHS>2.0. CO;2.
83. Pratt-Sitaula, B., M. Garde, D. W. Burbank, M. Oskin, A. Heimsath, and, E. Gabet, (2007), Bedload-to-suspended load ratio and rapid bedrock incision from Himalayan landslide-dam lake record, Quatern. Res., 68, 111-120.
84. Rahaman, W., S. K. Singh, R. Sinha, and, S. K. Tandon, (2009), Climate control on erosion distribution over the Himalaya during the past ∼100 ka, Geology, 37, 559-562, doi: 10.1130/G25425A.1.
85. Rao, K. L., (1975), India's Water Wealth, pp. 255, Orient Longman Ltd., New Delhi.
86. Raymo, M. E., and, W. F. Ruddiman, (1992), Tectonic forcing of late Cenozoic climate, Nature, 359, 117-122.
87. Riebe, C. S., and, D. E. Granger, (2013), Quantifying effects of deep and near-surface chemical erosion on cosmogenic nuclides in soils, saprolite, and sediment, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 38, 523-533, doi: 10.1002/esp.3339.
88. Roe, G. H., (2005), Orographic precipitation, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 33, 645-671, doi: 10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122541.
89. 10Be moraine dating in Garhwal, India, Quater. Sci. Rev., 29, 815-831.
90. Schildgen, T. F., W. M. Phillips, and, R. S. Purves, (2005), Simulation of snow shielding corrections for cosmogenic nuclide surface exposure studies, Geomorphology, 64, 67-85.
91. Schildgen, T. F., D. Cosentino, B. Bookhagen, S. Niedermann, C. Yildirim, H. P. Echtler, H. Wittmann, and, M. R. Strecker, (2012), Multi-phased uplift of the southern margin of the Central Anatolian plateau, Turkey: A record of tectonic and upper mantle processes, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 317-318, 85-95, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2011.12.003.
92. Schmidt, K., and, D. R. Montgomery, (1995), Limits to relief, Science, 270, 617-620.
93. Schwanghart, W., and, D. Scherler, (2014), Short Communication: TopoToolbox 2-MATLAB-based software for topographic analysis and modeling in Earth surface sciences, Earth Surf. Dynam., 2, 1-7, doi: 10.5194/esurf-2-1-2014.
94. Seeber, L., and, V. Gornitz, (1983), River profiles along the Himalayan arc as indicators of active tectonics, Tectonophysics, 92 (4), 335-367.
95. Singh, A. K., B. Parkash, R. Mohindra, J. V. Thomas, and, A. K. Singhvi, (2001), Quaternary alluvial fan sedimentation in the Dehrandun Valley Piggyback Basin, NW Himalaya: Tectonic and palaeoclimatic implications, Basin Res., 13, 449-471.
96. 26Al from an alpine hillslope, Geomorphology, 27, 131-150.
97. Snyder, N. P., K. X. Whipple, G. E. Tucker, and, D. J. Merritts, (2003), Importance of a stochastic distribution of floods and erosion thresholds in the bedrock river incision problem, J. Geophys. Res., 108 (B2), 2117, doi: 10.1029/2001JB001655.
98. Soille, P., J. Voigt, and, R. Colombo, (2003), Carving and adaptive drainage enforcement of grid digital elevation models, Water Resour. Res., 39, 1366, doi: 10.1029/2002WR001879.
99. Srivastava, P., and, G. Mitra, (1994), Thrust geometries and deep structure of the outer and lesser Himalaya, Kumaon and Garhwal (India): Implications for evolution of the Himalayan fold-and-thrust belt, Tectonics, 13, 89-109.
100. Srivastava, P., J. K. Tripathi, R. Islam, and, M. K. Jaiswal, (2008), Fashion and phases of late Pleistocene aggradation and incision in the Alaknanda River Valley, western Himalaya, India, Quarter. Res., 70, 68-80.
101. Stone, J. O., (2000), Air pressure and cosmogenic isotope production, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 23,753-23,759.
102. Styron, R. H., M. H. Taylor, and, M. A. Murphy, (2011), Oblique convergence, arc-parallel extension, and the role of strike-slip faulting in the High Himalaya, Geosphere, 7, 582-596, doi: 10.1130/GES00606.1.
103. Summerfield, M. A., and, N. J. Hulton, (1995), Natural controls of fluvial denudation rates in major world drainage basins, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 13,871-13,883.
104. Thakur, V. C., A. K. Pandey, and, N. Suresh, (2007), Late Quaternary-Holocene evolution of Dun structure and the Himalayan Frontal Fault zone of the Garhwal Sub-Himalaya, NW India, J. Asian Earth Sci., 29, 305-319, doi: 10.1016/j.jseaes.2006.02.002.
105. Thiede, R. C., and, T. A. Ehlers, (2013), Large spatial and temporal variations in Himalayan denudation, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 371-372, 278-293.
106. Thiede, R., B. Bookhagen, J. R. Arrowsmith, E. Sobel, and, M. Strecker, (2004), Climatic control on rapid exhumation along the Southern Himalayan Front, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 222, 791-806, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2004.03.015.
107. Thiede, R. C., T. A. Ehlers, B. Bookhagen, and, M. R. Strecker, (2009), Erosional variability along the northwest Himalaya, J. Geophys. Res., 114, F01015, doi: 10.1029/2008JF001010.
108. 86Sr, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 11, Q03013, doi: 10.1029/2009GC002862.
109. Tucker, G. E., (2004), Drainage basin sensitivity to tectonic and climatic forcing: Implications of a stochastic model for the role of entrainment and erosion thresholds, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 29, 185-205, doi: 10.1002/esp.1020.
110. Tucker, G. E., and, R. L. Bras, (2000), A stochastic approach to modeling the role of rainfall variability in drainage basin evolution, Water Resour. Res., 36 (7), 1953-1964, doi: 10.1029/2000WR900065.
111. Vance, D., M. Bickle, S. Ivy-Ochs, and, P. Kubik, (2003), Erosion and exhumation in the Himalaya from cosmogenic isotope inventories of river sediments, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 206, 273-288, doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(02) 01102-0.
112. Vannay, J. C., B. Grasemann, M. Rahn, W. Frank, A. Carter, and, V. Baudraz, (2004), Miocene to Holocene exhumation of metamorphic crustal wedges in the Himalayan orogen: Evidence for tectonic extrusion coupled to fluvial erosion, Tectonics, 23, TC1014, doi: 10.1029/2002TC001429.
113. von Blanckenburg, F., (2005), The control mechanisms of erosion and weathering at basin scale from cosmogenic nuclides in river sediment, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 237, 462-479.
114. von Blanckenburg, F., T. Hewawasam, and, P. W. Kubik, (2004), Cosmogenic nuclide evidence for low weathering and denudation in the wet, tropical highlands of Sri Lanka, J. Geophys. Res., 109, F03008, doi: 10.1029/ 2003JF000049.
115. Webb, A. A. G., A. Yin, T. M. Harrison, J. Célérier, G. E. Gehrels, C. E. Manning, and, M. Grove, (2011a), Cenozoic tectonic history of the Himachal Himalaya (northwestern India) and its constraints on the formation mechanism of the Himalayan orogen, Geosphere, 7 (4), 1013-1061, doi: 10.1130/GES00627.1.
116. Webb, A. A. G., A. K. Schmitt, D. He, and, E. L. Weigand, (2011b), Structural and geochronological evidence for the leading edge of the Greater Himalayan Crystalline complex in the central Nepal Himalaya, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 304, 483-495, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2011.02.024.
117. Wesnousky, S. G., S. Kumar, R. Mohindra, and, V. C. Thakur, (1999), Uplift and convergence along the Himalayan Frontal Thrust of India, Tectonics, 18 (6), 967-976.
118. Whipple, K. X., and, G. E. Tucker, (1999), Dynamics of the stream-power river incision model: Implications for height limits of mountain ranges, landscape response timescales, and research needs, J. Geophys. Res., 104 (B8), 17,661-17,674, doi: 10.1029/1999JB900120.
119. Willett, S. D., (1999), Orogeny and orography: The effects of erosion on the structure of mountain belts, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 28,957-28,981.
120. Willett, S. D., and, M. T. Brandon, (2002), On steady states in mountain belts, Geology, 30, 175-178.
121. Wittmann, H., F. von Blanckenbug, T. Kruesmann, K. P. Norton, and, P. W. Kubik, (2007), Relation between rock uplift and denudation from cosmogenic nuclides in river sediment in the Central Alps of Switzerland, J. Geophys. Res., 112, F04010, doi: 10.1029/2006JF000729.
122. Wobus, C., A. M. Heimsath, K. X. Whipple, and, K. V. Hodges, (2005), Active out-of-sequence thrust faulting in the central Nepalese Himalaya, Nature, 434, 1008-1011, doi: 10.1038/nature03499.
123. Wobus, C., K. X. Whipple, E. Kirby, N. Snyder, J. Johnson, K. Spyropolou, B. Crosby, and, D. Sheehan, (2006), Tectonics from topography: Procedures, promise, and pitfalls, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 398, 55-74, doi: 10.1130/2006.2398(04).
124. Wohl, E., and, G. C. L. David, (2008), Consistency of scaling relations among bedrock and alluvial channels, J. Geophys. Res., 113, F04013, doi: 10.1029/2008JF000989.
125. Wulf, H., B. Bookhagen, and, D. Scherler, (2010), Seasonal precipitation gradients and their impact on fluvial sediment flux in the Northwest Himalaya, Geomorphology, 118 (1-2), 13-21, doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.12.003.
126. Wulf, H., B. Bookhagen, and, D. Scherler, (2012), Climatic and geologic controls on suspended sediment flux in the Sutlej River Valley, western Himalaya, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 16, 2193-2217, doi: 10.5194/hess-16-2193- 2012.
127. Yanites, B. J., G. E. Tucker, and, R. S. Anderson, (2009), Numerical and analytical models of cosmogenic radionuclide dynamics in landslide-dominated drainage basins, J. Geophys. Res., 114, F01007, doi: 10.1029/2008JF001088.
128. Yin, A., (2006), Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Himalayan orogen as constrained by along-strike variation of structural geometry, exhumation history, and foreland sedimentation, Earth Sci. Rev., 76, 1-131.
129. Zeitler, P. K., et al. (2001), Crustal reworking at Nanga Parbat, Pakistan: Metamorphic consequences of thermal-mechanical coupling facilitated by erosion, Tectonics, 20, 712-728, doi: 10.1029/2000TC001243.