Erosional variability along the northwest Himalaya

Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface

Volumn 114, Issue 1, 2009, Pages

  Thiede, Rasmus C ^e   Ehlers, Todd A ^c   Bookhagen, Bodo ^a,b   Strecker, Manfred R ^d  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF POTSDAM   (Germany)

^e GEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

APATITE; DATA SET; DEFORMATION; EROSION RATE; EXHUMATION; MICA; NUMERICAL MODEL; PLEISTOCENE; PLIOCENE; SPATIOTEMPORAL ANALYSIS; THERMOCHRONOLOGY; TOPOGRAPHIC EFFECT; ZIRCON;

ASIA; EURASIA; HIMALAYAS; INDIA; SOUTH ASIA;

EID: 70349487075     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21699011     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2008JF001010     Document Type: Article

References (127)

1. Ahmad, T., N. Harris, M. Bickle, H. Chapman, J. Buribury, and C. Prince (2000), Isotopic constraints on the structural relationships between the Lesser Himalayan series and the High Himalayan crystalline series, Garhwal Himalaya, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 112, 467-477, doi:10.1130/00167606(2000)112<0467: ICOTSR>2.3.CO;2.
2. Ahnert, F. (1970), Functional relationships between denudation, relief, and uplift in large mid-latitude basins, Am. J. Sci., 268, 243-263.
3. Bagnold, R. A. (1966), An approach to the sediment transport problem from general physics, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 422, 11-137.
4. Bagnold, R. A. (1977), Bed load transport by natural rivers, Water Resour. Res., 13, 303-312, doi:10.1029/WR013i002p00303.
5. Barros, A. P., M. Joshi, J. Putkonen, and D. W. Burbank (2000 A study of the 1999 monsoon rainfall in a mountainous region in central Nepal using TRMM products and rain gauge observations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 3683-3686, doi: 10.1029/2000GL011827. (Pubitemid 32103193)
6. Beaumont, C., R. A. Jamieson, M. H. Nguyen, and B. Lee (2001), Himalayan tectonics explained by extrusion of a low-viscosity crustal channel coupled to focused surface denudation, Nature, 414, 738-742, doi:10.1038/414738a. (Pubitemid 34000768)
7. Bemet, M., P. van der Beek, R. Pik, P. Huyghe, J. L. Mugnier, E. Labrin, and A. Szulc (2006), Miocene to recent exhumation of the central Himalaya determined from combined detrital zircon fission-track and U/Pb analysis of Siwalik sediments, western Nepal, Basin Res., 18(4), 393-412, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2117.2006.00303.x. (Pubitemid 44883792)
8. Bilham, R., K. Larson, and J. Freymuller (1997), GPS measurements of present-day convergence across the Nepal Himalaya, Nature, 386, 6164, doi:10.1038/386061a0. (Pubitemid 27130918)
9. Blythe, A., D. W. Burbank, A. Carter, K. Schmidt, and J. Putkonen (2007), Plio-Quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 1. Apatite and zircon fission track and apatite [U-Thj/He analyses, Tectonics, 26, TC3002, doi:10.1029/2006TC001990.
10. Bollinger, L., J. P. Avouac, O. Beyssac, E. J. Catlos, T. M. Harrison, M: Grove, B. Goffe, and S. Sapkota (2004), Thermal structure and exhumation history of the Lesser Himalaya in central Nepal, Tectonics, 23, TC5015, doi:10.1029/2003TC001564.
11. Bookhagen, B., and D. W. Burbank (2006 Topography, relief, and TRMM-derived rainfall variations along the Himalaya, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L08405, doi:10.1029/2006GL026037. (Pubitemid 43950133)
12. Bookhagen, B., R. C. Thiede, and M. R. Strecker (2005), Late Quaternary intensified monsoon phases control landscape evolution in the NW Himalaya, Geology, 33, 149-152, doi:10.1130/G20982.1. (Pubitemid 40273859)
13. Brandon, M. T., M. K. Roden-Tice, and J. I. Garver (1998), Late Cenozoic exhumation of the Cascadia accretionary wedge in the Olypmic Mountains, northwest Washington State, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 110, 985-1009, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1998)110<0985:LCEOTC>2.3.CO;2.
14. Braun, J. (2002), Estimating exhumation rate and relief evolution by spectral analysis of age-elevation datasets, Terra Nova, 14, 210-214, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3121.2002.00409.x.
15. Burbank, D. W., A. E. Blythe, J. Putkonen, B. Pratt-Sitaula, E. Gabet, M. Oskin, A. Barros, and T. P. Ojha (2003), Decoupling of erosion and precipitation in the Himalayas, Nature, 426, 652-655, doi:10.1038/ nature02187.
16. Burchfiel, B. D., C. Zhileng, K. V. Hodges, L. Yuping, L. H. Royden, D. Changrong, and X. Jiene (1992), The South Tibetan detachment system, Himalayan otogen: Extension contemporaneous with and parallel to shortening in a collisional mountain belt, Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Am., 269, 1-41.
17. Burg, J. P., and G. M. Chen (1984), Tectonics and structural zonation of southern Tibet, Nature, 311, 219-223, doi: 10.1038/311219a0. (Pubitemid 15263480)
18. Burg, J. P., P. Nievergelt, F. Oberli, D. Seward, P. Davy, J. C. MaUrin, Z. Z. Diao, and M. Meier (1998), The Namche Barwa syntaxis: Evidence for exhumation related to compressional crustal folding, J. Asian Earth Sci., 16, 239-252, doi:10.1016/S0743-9547(98)00002-6.
19. Caddick, M. J., M. J. Bickle, N. B. W. Harris, T. J. B. Holland, M. S. A. Horstwood, R. R. Parrish, and T. Ahmad (2007), Burial and exhumation history of a Lesser Himalayan schist: Recording the formation of an inverted metamorphic sequence in NW India, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 264, 375-390, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.09.011.
20. Catlos, E. J., T. M. Harrison, M. Grove, A. Yin, M. J. Kohn, F. J. Ryerson, and P. LeFort (1997), Further evidence for late Miocene reactivation of the Main Central Thrust (Nepal Himalaya) and the significance of the MCT-I, Eos Trans. AGU, 78, 651.
21. Cattin, R., and J. P. Avouac (2000), Modeling mountain building and the seismic cycle in the Himalaya of Nepal, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 13,389-13,407, doi:10.1029/2000JB900032.
22. Chambers, J. A., T. W. Argles, M. S. A. Horstwood, N. B. W. Harris, R. R. Parrish, and T. Ahmad (2008), Tectonic implications of Palaeoproterozoic anatexis and late Miocene metamorphism in the Lesser Himalayan Sequence, Sutlej Valley, NW India, J. Geol. Soc., 165, 725-737, doi:10.144/0016-76492007/090.
23. Clift, P. D., and Z. Sun (2006), The sedimentary and tectonic evolution of the Yinggehai-Song Hong basin and the southern Hainan margin, South China Sea: Implications for Tibetan uplift and monsoon intensification, J. Geophys. Res., III, B06405, doi:10.1029/2005JB004048.
24. Clift, P., C. Gaedicke, R. Edwards, J. I. Lee, P. Hildebrand, S. Amjad, R. S. White, and H. U. Schluter (2002), The stratigraphic evolution of the Indus Fan and the history of sedimentation in the Arabian Sea, Mar. Geophys. Res., 23, 223-245, doi:10.1023/A:1023627123093. (Pubitemid 36810577)
25. Clift, P. D., et al. (2008), Holocene erosion of the Lesser Himalaya triggered by intensified summer monsoon, Geology, 36, 79-82, doi:10.1130/ G24315A.1.
26. Copeland, P., and M. T. Harrison (1990), Episodic rapid uplift in the Himalaya revealed by 40Ar/59Ar analysis of detrital K-felspar and muscovite, Bengal fan, Geology, 18, 354-359, doi:10.1130/ 00917613(1990)018<0354:ERUITH>2.3.CO;2.
27. Craddock, W. H., D. W. Burbank, B. Bookhagen, and E. J. Gabet (2007), Bedrock channel geometry along an orographic rainfall gradient in the upper Marsyandi River valley in central Nepal, J. Geophys. Res., 112, F03007, doi:10.1029/2006JF000589.
28. Dahlen, F. A., and J. Suppe (1988), Mechanics, growth, and erosion of mountain belts, in Processes in Continental Lithospheric Deformation, edited by S. P. Clark et al., Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Am., 218, 161-178.
29. Dahlen, F. A., J. Suppe, and D. Davis (1984), Mechanics of fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges: Cohesive Coulomb wedge theory, J. Geophys. Res., 89, 10,087-10,101, doi:10.1029/JB089iB12pl0087.
30. Davis, D., J. Suppe, and F. A. Dahlen (1983), Mechanics of fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 1153-1172, doi: 10.1029/JB088iB02p01153.
31. DeCelles, P. G., G. E. Gehreis, J. Quade, T. P. Ojha, P. A. Kapp, and B. N. Upreti (1998), Neogene foreland basin deposits, erosiona! unroofing, and the kinematic history of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt, western Nepal, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 110, 2-21, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1998) 110<0002:NFBDEU>2.3. CO;2. (Pubitemid 28238716)
32. DeCelles, P. G., D. M. Robinson, J. Quade, T. P. Ojha, C. N. Garzione, P. Copeland, and B.N. Upreti (2001), Stratigraphy, structwe, and tectonic evolution of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt in western Nepal, Tectonics, 20, 487-509, doi:10.1029/2000TC001226.
33. Dettman, D. L., M. J. Kohn, J. Quade, F. J. Ryerson, T. P. Ojha, and S. Hamidullah (2001), Seasonal stable isotope evidence for a strong Asian monsoon throughout the past 10.7 m.y., Geology, 29, 31-34, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(2001 )029<0031 :SSIEFA>2.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 33706085)
34. Dettman, D. L., X. M. Fang, C. N. Garzione, and J. J. Li (2003), Upliftdriven climate change at 12 Ma: A long δ18O record from the NE margin of the Tibetan Plateau, Earth Planet. Sei. Lett., 214, 267-277, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00383-2.
35. Dezes, P. J., J. C. Vannay, A. Steck, F. Bussy, and M. Cosca (1999), Synorogenic extension: Quantitative constraints on the age and displacement of the Zanskar shear zone (northwest Himalaya), Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 111, 364-374, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1999)111<0364:SEQCOT> 2.3.CO;2. (Pubitemid 129528253)
36. Dodson, M. H. (1973), Closure temperature in cooling geochronological and petrological systems, Contrib. Mineral. Petrol, 40, 259-274, doi:10.1007/BF00373790.
37. Dumitru, T. A. (1993), A new computer-automated microscope stage system for fission-track analysis, Nuci. Tracks Radial. Meas., 21, 575-580.
38. Dumitru, T. A. (2000), Fission-track geochronology, in Quaternary Geochronology: Methods And Applications, vol.4, AGU Reference Shelf, edited by J. S. Noller et al, pp. 131-155, AGU, Washington, D. C.
39. Dunkl, I. (2002), Trackkey: A Windows program for calculation and graphical presentation of fission track data, Comput. Geosci., 28(1), 3-12.
40. Ehlers, T. A., and K. A. Farley (2003), Apatite (U-Th)/He thermochronometry: Methods and applications to problems in tectonic and surface processes, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 206, 1-14, doi:10.1016/S0012821X(02)01069- 5.
41. Ehlers, T. A., S. D. Willett, P. A. Armstrong, and D. S. Chapman (2003), Exhumation of the central Wasatch Mountains, Utah: 2. Thermokinematic model of exhumation, erosion, and thermochronometer interpretation,/ Geophys. Res., 108(B3), 2173, doi: 10.1029/2001JB001723.
42. Ehlers, T. A., et al. (2005), Computational tools for low-temperature thermochronometer interpretation, Rev. Mineral. Geochem., 58, 589-622, doi: 10.2138/rmg.2005.58.22.
43. England, P., P. Lefort, P. Moinar, and A. Pecher (1992), Heat-sources for tertiary metamorphism and anatexis in the Annapwna-Manaslu region central Nepal, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 2107-2128, doi:10.1029/ 91JBO2272.
44. Förster, A., and H.-J. Förster (2000), Crustal composition and mantle heat flow: Implications from surface heat flow and radiogenic heat production in the Variscan Erzgebirge (Germany), J. Geophys. Res., 105, 27,917-27,938.
45. Fuchs, G. C. (1981), Geologic-tectonical map of the Himalaya (E 70-E 95/ N 35-N 25), map, scale 1:2,000,000, Geol. Bundesanst., Vienna.
46. Gaetani, M., and E. Garzanti (1991), Multicyclic history of the northern India continental margin (northwestern Himalaya), Bull Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol, 75, 1427-1446.
47. Galbraith, R. F. (1981), On statistical models for fission-track counts, J. Math. Geol, 13, 471-418.
48. Galbraith, R. E, and G. M. Lasiert (1993), Statistical models for mixed fission-track ages, Nucl Tracks Radiât. Meas., 21, 459-470.
49. Gansser, A. (1964), Geology of the Himalayas, 289 pp., Interscience, London.
50. Garzanti, E., A. Baud, and G. Mascle (1987), Sedimentary record of the northward flight of India and its collision with Eurasia (Ladakh Himalaya, India), Geodin. Acta, 1, 297-312.
51. Green, P. F. (1981), A new look at statistics in fission-track dating, Nucl. Tracks Radiat. Meas., 5, 77-86.
52. Grujic, D., M. Casey, C.Davidson, L. S. Hollister, R. Kundig, T. Pavlis, and S. Schmid (1996), Ductile extrusion of the Higher Himalayan Crystalline in Bhutan: Evidence from quartz microfabrics, Tectonophysics, 260, 21-43, doi:10.1016/0040-1951(96)00074-l. (Pubitemid 27159356)
53. Grujic, D., I. Coutand, B. Bookhagen, S. Bonnet, A. Blythe, and C. Duncan (2006), Climatic forcing of erosion, landscape, and tectonics in the Bhutan Himalayas, Geology, 34, 801-804, doi:10.1130/G22648.1. (Pubitemid 44575835)
54. Harrison, T. M., F. J. Ryerson, P. Le Fort, A. Yin, O. M. Lovera, and E. J. Catlos (1997), A late Miocene-Pliocene origin for the central Himalayan inverted metamorphism, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 146, 1-7, doi:10.1016/ S0012-821X(96)00215-224
55. Hilley, G. E., and M. R. Strecker (2004), Steady state erosion of critical Coulomb wedges with applications to Taiwan and the Himalaya, J. Geophys. Res., 109, B01411, doi: 10.1029/2002JB002284.
56. Hodges, K. V. (2000), Tectonics of the Himalaya and southern Tibet from two perspectives, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 112,324-350, doi:10.1130/00167606(2000) 112<0324:TOTHAS>2.3.CO;2.
57. Hodges, K. V., R. R. Parrish, and M. P. Searle (1996), Tectonic evolution of the central Annapurna Range, Nepalese Himalayas, Tectonics, 15, 1264-1291, doi:10.1029/96TC01791.
58. Hodges, K. V., J. M. Hurtado, and K. X. Whipple (2001), Southward extrusion of Tibetan crust and its effect on Himalayan tectonics, Tectonics, 20, 799-809, doi:10.1029/2001TC001281.
59. Hodges, K. V, C. Wobus, K. Ruhl, T. Schildgen, and K. Whipple (2004), Quaternary deformation, river steepening, and heavy precipitation at the front of the Higher Himalayan ranges, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 220,379-389, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(04)00063-9.
60. Hoth, S., J. Adam, N. Kukowski, and O. Oncken (2006), Influence of erosion on the kinematics of bivergent orogens. Results from scaled sandbox-simulations, paper presented at Tectonics, Climate, and Landscape Evolution, Geol. Soc. of Am., Sioulin, Taiwan.
61. Hurford, A. J., and P. F. Green (1983), The zeta-age calibration of fissiontrack dating, Isot. Geosci., 1(4), 285-317.
62. Huntington, K. W., Á. E. Blythe, and K. V. Hodges (2006), Climate change and late Pliocene acceleration of erosion in the Himalaya, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 252, 107-118, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.09.031.
63. Huntington, K. W., T. A. Ehlers, K. V. Hodges, and D. M. Whipp (2007), Topography, exhumation pathway, age uncertainties, and the interpretation of thermochronometer data, Tectonics, 26, TC4012, doi: 10.1029/ 2007TC002108.
64. Huyghe, P., A. Galy, J.-L. Mugnier, and C. France-Lanord (2001), Propagation of the thrust system and erosion in the Lesser Himalaya: Geochemical and sedimentological evidence, Geology, 29, 1007-1010, doi:10.1130/0091- 7613(2001)029<1007:POTTSA>2.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 35374845)
65. Huyghe, P., J. L. Mugnier, A. P. Gajurel, and B. Delcaillau (2005), Tectonic and climatic control of the changes in the sedimentary record of the Karnali River section (Siwaliks of western Nepal), 1sl. Arc, Deep Sea Trenches Back-Arc Basins, 14, 311-327, doi:10.111 l/j.14401738.2005.00500.x.
66. Jain, A. K., D. Kumar, S. Singh, A. Kumar, and N. Lal (2000), Timing, quantification and tectonic modelling of Pliocene-Quaternary movements in the NW Himalaya: Evidence from fission track dating, Earth Planet. Sei. Lett., 179, 437-451, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00133-3.
67. Jamieson, R. A., C. Beaumont, S. Medvedèv, and M. H. Nguyen (2004), Crustal channel flows: 2. Numerical models with implications for metamorphism in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen, J. Geophys. Res., 109, B06407, doi:10.1029/2003JB002811.
68. Jamieson, R. A., C. Beaumont, M. H. Nguyen, and D. Grujic (2006), Provenance of greater Himalayan Sequence and associated rocks: Predictions of channel flow models, in Channel Flow, Ductile Extrusion and Exhumation in Continental Collision Zones, edited by R. D. Law et al., Spec. Publ. Geol. Soc. London, 268, 165-182.
69. Knighton, A. D. (1998), Fluvial Forms And Processes - A New Perspective, 384 pp., Edward Arnold Ltd., London.
70. Koons, P. O. (1989), The topographic evolution of collisional mountain belts: A numerical look at the Southern Alps, New Zealand, Am. J. Sci., 289, 1041-1069.
71. Kutzbach, J. E., W. L. Prell, and W. F. Ruddiman (1993), Sensitivity of Eurasian climate to surface uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, J. Geol., 100, 177-190.
72. LaI, N., Y. D. Mehta, D. Kumar, A. Kumar, and A. K. Jain (1999), Cooling and exhumation history of the Mandi granite and adjoining tectonic units, Himachal Pradesh, and estimation of closure temperatwe from external surface of zircon, in Geodynamic of the NW Himalaya, edited by A. K. Jain and R. M. Manickavasagam, réport, pp. 207-216, Gondwana Res. Group., Osaka, Japan.
73. Lasiert, G. M., P. F. Green, I. R. Duddy, and A. J. W. Gleadow (1987), Thermal annealing of fission tracks in apatite: 2, A quantitative analysis, Chem. Geol., 65, 1-13, doi:10.1016/0009-2541(87)90189-6.
74. Lavé, J., and J. P. Avouac (2001), Fluvial incision and tectonic uplift across the Himalaya of Central Nepal, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 26,561-26,591.
75. Law, R. D., M. P. Searle, and L. Godin (Eds.) (2006), Channel Flow. Ductile Extrusion and Exhumation in Continental Collision Zones, Spec Publ. Geol. Soc. London, 268, 1-632.
76. Lefort, P. (1975), Himalayas - collided range - present knowledge of continental arc, Am. J. Sci., 275, 1.
77. Leopold, L. B., and T. Maddock (1953), Hydraulic geometry of streams and some physiographic implications, U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof Pap., 252, 57.
78. Mancktelow, N. S., and B. Grasemann (1997 Time-dependent effects of heat advection and topography on cooling histories during erosion, Tectonophysics, 270, 167-195, doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(96)00279-X. (Pubitemid 27486911)
79. Meigs, A., D. W. Burbank, and R. A. Beck (1995), Middle-late Miocene (pre-10 Ma) initiation of the Main Boundary Thrust in the western Himalaya, Geology, 23, 423-426, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023 <0423:MLMMFO>2.3. CO;2.
80. Moinar, P., and P. England (1990), Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges and global climatic change: Chicken or egg?, Nature, 346, 29-34, doi:10.1038/346029a0.
81. Montgomery, D. R., and M. T. Brandon (2002), Topographic controls on erosion rates in tectonically active mountain ranges, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 201, 481-489, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(02)00725-2.
82. Montgomery, D. R., and K. B. Gran (2001), Downstream variations in the width of bedrock channels, Water Resour. Res., 37, 1841-1846, doi:10.1029/2000WR900393.
83. Naeser, C. W. (1979), Fission-track dating and geological annealing of fission tracks, in Lectures in Isotope Geology, edited by E. Jäger and J. C. Hunziker, pp. 154-169, Springer, New York.
84. Nelson, K. D., et al. (1996), Partially molten middle crust beneath southern Tibet: Synthesis of project INDEPTH results, Science, 274, 1684-1688, doi: 10.1126/science.274.5293.1684.
85. Pandey, M. R., R. P. Tandukar, J. P. Avouac, J. Lave, and J. P. Massot (1995), Interseismic strain accumulation on the Himalayan crustal ramp (Nepal), Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 751-754, doi:10.1029/94GL02971.
86. Patriat, P., and J. Achache (1984), Indo-Asia collision chronology and its implications for crustal shortening and driving mechanisms of plates, Nature, 311, 615-621, doi:10.1038/311615a0. (Pubitemid 16296730)
87. Popov, Y. A., and L. A. Pevzner (1994), Vertical variation in heat flow density and rock thermal properties along the scientific boreholes of Russia, paper presented at VIIth International Symposium on the Observation of the Continental Crust Through Drilling, Drill., Obs. and Sampling of the Earths Cont. Crust, Santa Fe, N. M.
88. Pratt, B., D. W. Burbank, A. Heimsath, and T. Ojha (2002 Impulsive alluviation during early Holocene strengthened monsoons, central Nepal Himalaya, Geology, 30, 911-914, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030 <09U:IADEHS>2.0. CO;2. (Pubitemid 35326914)
89. Pratt-Sitaula, B., D. W. Burbank, A. Heimsath, and T. Ojha (2004), Landscape disequilibrium on 1000-10,000 year scales Marsyandi River, Nepal, central Himalaya, Geomorphology, 58, 223-241, doi: 10.1016/ j.geomorph.2003.07. 002. (Pubitemid 38345814)
90. Prell, W. L., and J. E. Kutzbach (1992), Sensitivity of the Indian monsoon to forcing parameters and implications for its evolution, Nature, 360, 647-652, doi:10.1038/360647a0.
91. Pwdy, J. E., and E. Jaeger (1976), K-Ar ages on rock-forming minerals from the Central Alps, Mem. Sci. Geol, 30, 1-31.
92. Quade, J., T. E. Ceding, and J. R. Bowman (1989), Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during latest Miocene in northern Pakistan, Nature, 342, 163-166, doi:10.1038/342163a0. (Pubitemid 20409861)
93. Rahl, J. M., T. A. Ehlers, and B. A. van der Pluijm (2007), Quantifying transient erosion of orogens with detrital thermochronology from syntectonic basin deposits, Earth Planet. Sei. Lett., 256, 147-161, doi: 10.1016/ j.epsl.2007.01.020.
94. Ray, L., A. Bhattacharya, and S. Roy (2007), Thermal conductivity of Higher Himalayan Crystallines from Garhwal Himalaya, India, Tectonophysics, 434, 71-79, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2007.02.003. (Pubitemid 46488618)
95. Rea, D. K. (1993), Delivery of Himalayan sediment to the northern Indian Ocean and its relation to global climate, sea level, uplift, and seawater strontium, in Synthesis of Results from Scientific Drilling \n the Indian Ocean, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol.70, edited by R. A. Duncan et al., pp. 387-402, AGU, Washington, D. C.
96. Reiners, P. W., and M. T. Brandon (2006), Using thermochronology to understand orogenic erosion, Annu. Rev.. Earth Planet. Sci., 34, 419-466, doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.34.031405.125202.
97. Reiners, P. W., T. A. Ehlers, S. G. Mitchell, and D. R. Montgomery (2003), Coupled spatial variations in precipitation and long-term erosion rates across the Washington Cascades, Nature, 426, 645-647, doi:10.1038/ nature02111.
98. Reiners, P. W., T. A. Ehlers, and P. K. Zeitler (2005), Past, present, and future of thermochronology, in Low-Temperature Thermochronology: Techniques, Interpretations, and Applications, edited by P. W. Reiners and T. A. Ehlers, Rev. Mineral Geochem., 58, 1-18.
99. Robinson, D. M., P. G. DeCelles, C. N. Garzione, O. N. Pearson, T. M. Harrison, and E. J. Catlos (2003), Kinematic model for the Main Central thrust in Nepal, Geology, 31, 359-362, doi: 10.1130/00917613(2003)031<0359:KMFTM02. 0.CO;2.
100. Robinson, D. M., P. G. DeCelles, and P. Copeland (2006), Tectonic evolution of the Himalayan thrust belt in western Nepal: Implications for channel flow models, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 118, 865-885, doi:10.1130/B25911.1.
101. Roy, S., and R. U. M. Rao (2000), Heat flow in the Indian shield, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 25,587-25,604, doi:10.1029/2000JB900257.
102. Schaller, M., and T. A. Ehlers (2006), Limits to quantifying climate driven changes in denudation rates with cosmogenic radionuclides, Earth Planet. Sei. Lett., 248, 153-167, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.05.027. (Pubitemid 44159241)
103. Schlup, M., A. Carter, M. Cosca, and A. Steck (2003), Exhumation history of eastern Ladakh revealed by Ar-40/Ar-39 and fission-track ages: The Indus River-Tso Morari transect, NW Himalaya, J. Geol. Soc., 160,385-399, doi:10.1144/0016-764902-084. (Pubitemid 36647311)
104. Searle, M. P., S. R. Noble, A. J. Hurford, and D. C. Rex (1999), Age of crustal melting, emplacement and exhumation history of the Shivling leucogranite, Garhwal Himalaya, Geol. Mag., 136, 513-525, doi:10.1017/ S0016756899002885.
105. Seeber, L., and V. Gornitz (1983), River profiles along the Himalayan arc as indicators of active tectonics, Tectonophysics, 92,335-367, doi:10.1016/ 0040-1951(83)90201-90209 (Pubitemid 13502727)
106. Sorkhabi, R. B., E. Stump, K. A. Foland, and A. K. Jain (1996), Fissiontrack and 40Ar/39Ar evidence for episodic denudation of the Gangotri granites in the Garhwal Higher Himalaya, India, Tectonophysics, 260, 187-199, doi:10.1016/0040-1951(96)00083-2.
107. Srivastava, P., and G. Mitra (1994), Thrust geometries and deep-structure of the Outer and Lesser Himalaya, Kumaon and Garhwal (India): Implications for evolution of the Himalayan fold-and-thrust belt, Tectonics, 13, 89-109, doi:10.1029/93TC01130. (Pubitemid 24425218)
108. Stüwe, K., L. White, and R. Brown (1994), The influence of eroding topography on steady-state isotherms: Application to fission track analysis, EarthPlanet. Sci. Lett., 124,63-74, doi:10.1016/0012-821X(94)00068-9.
109. Summerfield, M. A., and N. J. Hulton (1994), Natural controls of fluvial denudation rates in major world drainage basins, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 13,871-13,883.
110. Thiede, R., B. Bookhagen, J. R. Arrowsmith, E. Sobel, and M. Strecker (2004), Climatic control on rapid exhumation along the Southern Himalayan Front, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 222, 791-806, doi:10.1016/ j.epsl.2004.03.015. (Pubitemid 38763294)
111. Thiede, R. C., J. R. Arrowsmith, B. Bookhagen, M. O. McWilliams, E. R. Sobel, and M. R. Strecker (2005), From tectonically to erosionally controlled development of the Himalayan orogen, Geology, 33, 689-692, doi:10.1130/G21483.1.
112. Thiede, R. C., J. R. Arrowsmith, B. Bookhagen, M. O. McWilliams, E. R. Sobel, and M. R. Strecker (2006), Dome formation and extension in the Tethyan Himalaya, Leo Pargil, NW-India, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 118, 635-650, doi:610.1130/B25872.25871.
113. Valdiya, K. S. (1980), The two intracrustal boundary thrusts of the Himalaya, Tectonophysics, 66, 323-348, doi:10.1016/0040-1951(80)90248-6.
114. Vance, D., and N. Harris (1999), Timing of prograde metamorphism in the Zanskar Himalaya, Geology, 27, 395-398, doi:10.1130/00917613(1999)027<0395: TOPMIT>2.3.CO;2. (Pubitemid 129660437)
115. Vannay, J. C., and B. Grasemann (2001), Himalayan inverted metamorphism and syn-convergence extension as a consequence of a general shear extrusion, Geol. Mag., 138, 253-276, doi:10.1017/ S0016756801005313.
116. Vannay, J. C., B. Grasemann, M. Rann, W. Frank, A. Carter, and V. Baudraz (2004), Miocene to Holocene exhumation of metamorphic crustal wedges in the Himalayan orogen: Evidence for tectonic extrusion coupled to fluvial erosion, Tectonics, 23, TC1014, doi:10.1029/2002TC001429.
117. Wagner, G., and P. Van den Haute (1992), Fission Track Dating, 285 pp., Kluwer Acad., Dordrecht, Netherlands.
118. Wang, Q., et al. (2001), Present-day crustal deformation in China constrained by global positioning system measurements, Science, 294, 574-577, doi:10.1126/science.l063647. (Pubitemid 32999550)
119. Whipp, D. M., and T. A. Ehlers (2007), Influence of groundwater flow on thermochronometer-derived exhumation rates in the central Nepalese Himalaya, Geology, 35, 851-854, doi:10.1130/G23788A.l.
120. Whipp, D. M., T. A. Ehlers, A. E. Blythe, K. W. Huntington, K. V. Hodges, and D. W. Burbank (2007), Plio-Quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 2. Thermokinematic and thermochronometer age prediction model, Tectonics, 26, TC3003, doi:10.1029/ 2006TC001991.
121. Whipple, K. X., and B. J. Meade (2006), Orogen response to changes in climatic and tectonic forcing, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 243, 218-228, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.12.022.
122. Willett, S. D. (1999), Orogeny and orography: The effects of erosion on the structure of mountain belts, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 28,957-28,982.
123. Wobus, C.W., K. V. Hodges, and K. X. Whipple (2003), Has focused denudation sustained active thrusting at the Himalayan topographic front?, Geology, 31, 861-864, doi:10.1130/G19730.1.
124. Wobus, C., A. M. Heimsath, K. X. Whipple, and K. V. Hodges (2005), Active out-of-sequence thrust faulting in the central Nepalese Himalaya, Nature, 434, 1008-1011, doi:10.1038/nature03499. (Pubitemid 40586046)
125. Zeitler, P. K., et al. (2001), Crustal reworking at Nanga Parbat, Pakistan: Metamorphic consequences of thermal-mechanical coupling facilitated by erosion, Tectonics, 20, 712-728, doi:10.1029/2000TC001243.
126. Zhang, P., P. Moinar, and W. R. Downs (2001), Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates, Nature, 410, 891-897, doi:10.1038/35073504.
127. Zhisheng, A., J. E. Kutzbach, W. L. Prell, and S. C.Porter (2001), Evolution of Asian monsoons and phased uplift of the Himalayan Tibetan Plateau since late Miocene times, Nature, 411, 62-66, doi: 10.1038/ 35075035. (Pubitemid 32428188)