Early-onset neonatal sepsis

Clinical Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 27, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 21-47

  Simonsen, Kari A ^a   Anderson Berry, Ann L ^b   Delair, Shirley F ^a   Dele Davies, H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACICLOVIR; AMINOGLYCOSIDE; AMPICILLIN; ANTIFUNGAL AGENT; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CEFAZOLIN; CYTOKINE; ECHINOCANDIN; FLUCONAZOLE; GLYCOPEPTIDE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; MEMBRANE ANTIGEN; PENICILLIN G; PLACEBO; POLYENE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; PROCALCITONIN; RECOMBINANT GRANULOCYTE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR; STREPTOCOCCUS VACCINE; VANCOMYCIN;

ARTICLE; BLOOD ANALYSIS; CEREBROSPINAL FLUID ANALYSIS; CHEMOPROPHYLAXIS; COAGULASE NEGATIVE STAPHYLOCOCCUS; ENTEROVIRUS; ESCHERICHIA COLI; HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS; HUMAN; HYPOTHERMIA; INTRAPARTUM CARE; LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES; MENINGITIS; MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; MULTICENTER STUDY (TOPIC); MYCOSIS; NEWBORN; NEWBORN SEPSIS; NONHUMAN; PARECHOVIRUS; PHASE 3 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREMATURITY; PRENATAL SCREENING; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; STREPTOCOCCUS AGALACTIAE; TREATMENT RESPONSE; URINALYSIS;

HUMANS; INFANT, NEWBORN; MORTALITY; NORTH AMERICA; SEPSIS;

EID: 84891669485     PISSN: 08938512     EISSN: 10986618     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00031-13     Document Type: Article

References (316)

1. Edwards MS, Baker CJ. 2004. Sepsis in the newborn, p 545-561. In Gershon AA, Hotez PJ, Katz SL (ed), Krugman's infectious diseases of children, 11th ed. Mosby, Philadelphia, PA.
2. Schuchat A. 2000. Neonatal group B streptococcal disease-screening and prevention. N. Engl. J. Med. 343:209-210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056 /NEJM200007203430310.
3. Hornik CP, Fort P, Clark RH, Watt K, Benjamin DK, Jr, Smith PB, Manzoni P, Jacqz-Aigrain E, Kaguelidou F, Cohen-Wolkowiez M. 2012. Early and late onset sepsis in very-low-birth-weight infants from a large group of neonatal intensive care units. Early Hum. Dev. 88:S69-S74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3782(12)70019-1.
4. Edwards MS, Gonik B. 28 November 2012. Preventing the broad spectrum of perinatal morbidity and mortality through group B streptococcal vaccination. Vaccine [Epub ahead of print.]. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.11.046.
5. Franciosi RA, Knostman JD, Zimmerman RA. 1973. Group B streptococcal neonatal and infant infections. J. Pediatr. 82:707-718. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(73)80604-3.
6. Bauserman MS, Laughon MM, Hornik CP, Smith PB, Benjamin DK, Jr, Clark RH, Engmann C, Cohen-Wolkowiez M. 2013. Group B Streptococcus and Escherichia coli infections in the intensive care nursery in the era of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 32:208-212.
7. Guilbert J, Levy C, Cohen R, Bacterial Meningitis Group, Delacourt C, Renolleau S, Flamant C. 2010. Late and ultra late onset Streptococcus B meningitis: clinical and bacteriological data over 6 years in France. Acta Paediatr. 99:47-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.02035.x.
8. Lin TY, Kao HT, Hsieh SH, Huang YC, Chiu CH, Chou YH, Yang PH, Lin RI, Tsao KC, Hsu KH, Chang LY. 2003. Neonatal enterovirus infections: emphasis on risk factors of severe and fatal infections. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 22:889-894. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.inf.0000091294.63706.f3.
9. Stoll BJ, Hansen N, Fanaroff AA, Wright LL, Carlo WA, Ehrenkranz RA, Lemons JA, Donovan EF, Stark AR, Tyson JE, Oh W, Bauer CR, Korones SB, Shankaran S, Laptook AR, Stevenson DK, Papile LA, Poole WK. 2002. Changes in pathogens causing early-onset sepsis in very-low-birth-weight infants. N. Engl. J. Med. 347:240-247. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa012657.
10. Cohen-Wolkowiez M, Moran C, Benjamin DK, Cotten CM, Clark RH, Benjamin DK, Jr, Smith PB. 2009. Early and late onset sepsis in late preterm infants. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 28:1052-1056. http://dx.doi.org /10.1097/INF.0b013e3181acf6bd.
11. Stoll BJ, Hansen NI, Sanchez PJ, Faix RG, Poindexter BB, Van Meurs KP, Bizzarro MJ, Goldberg RN, Frantz ID, III, Hale EC, Shankaran S, Kennedy K, Carlo WA, Watterberg KL, Bell EF, Walsh MC, Schibler K, Laptook AR, Shane AL, Schrag SJ, Das A, Higgins RD, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. 2011. Early onset neonatal sepsis: the burden of group B streptococcal and E. coli disease continues. Pediatrics 127:817-826. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-2217.
12. Weston EJ, Pondo T, Lewis MM, Martell-Cleary P, Morin C, Jewell B, Daily P, Apostol M, Petit S, Farley M, Lynfield R, Reingold A, Hansen NI, Stoll BJ, Shane AJ, Zell E, Schrag SJ. 2011. The burden of invasive early-onset neonatal sepsis in the United States, 2005-2008. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 30:937-941. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097 /INF.0b013e318223bad2.
13. Polin RA, St Geme JW, III. 1992. Neonatal sepsis. Adv. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. 7:25-61.
14. Gibbs RS, Duff P. 1991. Progress in pathogenesis and management of clinical intraamniotic infection. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 164:1317-1326. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9378(91)90707-X.
15. Schuchat A, Deaver-Robinson K, Plikaytis BD, Zangwill KM, Mohle-Boetani J, Wenger JD. 1994. Multistate case-control study of maternal risk factors for neonatal group B streptococcal disease. The Active Surveillance Study Group. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 13:623-629.
16. Adair CE, Kowalsky L, Quon H, Ma D, Stoffman J, McGeer A, Robertson S, Mucenski M, Davies HD. 2003. Risk factors for early-onset group B streptococcal disease in neonates: a population-based case-control study. CMAJ 169: 198-203. http://www.cmaj.ca/content/169/3/198.long.
17. Wood EG, Dillon HC, Jr. 1981. A prospective study of group B streptococcal bacteriuria in pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 140:515-520.
18. Moller M, Thomsen AC, Borch K, Dinesen K, Zdravkovic M. 1984. Rupture of fetal membranes and premature delivery associated with group B streptococci in urine of pregnant women. Lancet ii:69-70.
19. Liston TE, Harris RE, Foshee S, Null DM, Jr. 1979. Relationship of neonatal pneumonia to maternal urinary and neonatal isolates of group B streptococci. South. Med. J. 72:1410-1412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097 /00007611-197911000-00019.
20. Persson K, Christensen KK, Christensen P, Forsgren A, Jorgensen C, Persson PH. 1985. Asymptomatic bacteriuria during pregnancy with special reference to group B streptococci. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 17:195-199.
21. Carstensen H, Christensen KK, Grennert L, Persson K, Polberger S. 1988. Early-onset neonatal group B streptococcal septicaemia in siblings. J. Infect. 17:201-204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0163-4453(88)96426-2.
22. Faxelius G, Bremme K, Kvist-Christensen K, Christensen P, Ringertz S. 1988. Neonatal septicemia due to group B streptococci-perinatal risk factors and outcome of subsequent pregnancies. J. Perinat. Med. 16:423-430. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jpme.1988.16.5-6.423.
23. Christensen KK, Dahlander K, Linden V, Svenningsen N, Christensen P. 1981. Obstetrical care in future pregnancies after fetal loss in group B streptococcal septicemia. A prevention program based on bacteriological and immunological follow-up. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 12:143-150.
24. Baker CJ, Kasper DL. 1976. Correlation of maternal antibody deficiency with susceptibility to neonatal group B streptococcal infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 294:753-756. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM197604012941404.
25. Tita AT, Andrews WW. 2010. Diagnosis and management of clinical chorioamnionitis. Clin. Perinatol. 37:339-354. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clp.2010.02.003.
26. Herbst A, Kallen K. 2007. Time between membrane rupture and delivery and septicemia in term neonates. Obstet. Gynecol. 110:612-618. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000277632.36186.84.
27. Polin RA, Committee on Fetus and Newborn. 2012. Management of neonates with suspected or proven early-onset bacterial sepsis. Pediatrics 129:1006-1015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-0541.
28. Edwards MS. 2013. Clinical features and diagnosis of sepsis in term and late preterm infants. In Basow DS (ed), UpToDate. UpToDate, Waltham, MA. http://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-features-and-di agnosis-of-sepsis-in-term-and-late-preterm-infants?source_search_res ult&search_neonatal_sepsis&selectedTitle_1_58. Accessed 11 November 2013.
29. Benitz WE, Gould JB, Druzin ML. 1999. Risk factors for early-onset group B streptococcal sepsis: estimation of odds ratios by critical literature review. Pediatrics 103:e77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.103.6.e77.
30. Arnon S, Litmanovitz I. 2008. Diagnostic tests in neonatal sepsis. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 21:223-227. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QCO.0b013e3282fa15dd.
31. Anderson-Berry A. 2012. Neonatal sepsis. In Medscape reference. WebMD LLC, New York, NY. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/9 78352-overview.
32. Hoffman JA, Mason EO, Schutze GE, Tan TQ, Barson WJ, Givner LB, Wald ER, Bradley JS, Yogev R, Kaplan SL. 2003. Streptococcus pneumoniae infections in the neonate. Pediatrics 112:1095-1102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.112.5.1095.
33. Bizzarro MJ, Raskind C, Baltimore RS, Gallagher PG. 2005. Seventyfive years of neonatal sepsis at Yale: 1928-2003. Pediatrics 116:595-602. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-0552.
34. Stoll BJ, Gordon T, Korones SB, Shankaran S, Tyson JE, Bauer CR, Fanaroff AA, Lemons JA, Donovan EF, Oh W, Stevenson DK, Ehrenkranz RA, Papile LA, Verter J, Wright LL. 1996. Early-onset sepsis in very low birth weight neonates: a report from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. J. Pediatr. 129:72-80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(96)70192-0.
35. Hood M, Janney A, Dameron G. 1961. Beta hemolytic streptococcus group B associated with problems of the perinatal period. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 82:809-818.
36. Eickhoff TC, Klein JO, Daly AK, Ingall D, Finland M. 1964. Neonatal sepsis and other infections due to group B beta-hemolytic streptococci. N. Engl. J. Med. 271:1221-1228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM196412102712401.
37. Puopolo KM, Eichenwald EC. 2010. No change in the incidence of ampicillin-resistant, neonatal, early-onset sepsis over 18 years. Pediatrics 125:e1031-e1038. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-1573.
38. Nealon TJ, Mattingly SJ. 1983. Association of elevated levels of cellular lipoteichoic acids of group B streptococci with human neonatal disease. Infect. Immun. 39:1243-1251.
39. Phares CR, Lynfield R, Farley MM, Mohle-Boetani J, Harrison LH, Petit S, Craig AS, Schaffner W, Zansky SM, Gershman K, Stefonek KR, Albanese BA, Zell ER, Schuchat A, Schrag SJ, Active Bacterial Core Surveillance/Emerging Infections Program Network. 2008. Epidemiology of invasive group B streptococcal disease in the United States, 1999-2005. JAMA 299:2056-2065. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.299.17.2056.
40. Klinger G, Levy I, Sirota L, Boyko V, Reichman B, Lerner-Geva L, Israel Neonatal Network. 2009. Epidemiology and risk factors for early onset sepsis among very-low-birthweight infants. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 201:38. e1-38. e6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2009.03.006.
41. Verboon-Maciolek MA, Krediet TG, Gerards LJ, Fleer A, van Loon TM. 2005. Clinical and epidemiologic characteristics of viral infections in a neonatal intensive care unit during a 12-year period. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 24:901-904. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.inf.0000180471.03702.7f.
42. Pinninti SG, Angara R, Feja KN, Kimberlin DW, Leach CT, Conrad DA, McCarthy CA, Tolan RW, Jr. 2012. Neonatal herpes disease following maternal antenatal antiviral suppressive therapy: a multicenter case series. J. Pediatr. 161:134-138. e3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2011.12.053.
43. Baldwin S, Whitley RJ. 1989. Intrauterine herpes simplex virus infection. Teratology 39:1-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tera.1420390102.
44. Monif GR, Kellner KR, Donnelly WH, Jr. 1985. Congenital herpes simplex type II infection. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 152:1000-1002. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9378(85)90547-2.
45. Hutto C, Arvin A, Jacobs R, Steele R, Stagno S, Lyrene R, Willett L, Powell D, Andersen R, Werthammer J. 1987. Intrauterine herpes simplex virus infections. J. Pediatr. 110:97-101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016 /S0022-3476(87)80298-6.
46. Kimberlin DW, Lin CY, Jacobs RF, Powell DA, Corey L, Gruber WC, Rathore M, Bradley JS, Diaz PS, Kumar M, Arvin AM, Gutierrez K, Shelton M, Weiner LB, Sleasman JW, de Sierra TM, Weller S, Soong SJ, Kiell J, Lakeman FD, Whitley RJ, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Collaborative Antiviral Study Group. 2001. Safety and efficacy of high-dose intravenous acyclovir in the management of neonatal herpes simplex virus infections. Pediatrics 108:230-238. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.108.2.230.
47. Whitley R, Arvin A, Prober C, Burchett S, Corey L, Powell D, Plotkin S, Starr S, Alford C, Connor J. 1991. A controlled trial comparing vidarabine with acyclovir in neonatal herpes simplex virus infection. Infectious Diseases Collaborative Antiviral Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 324:444-449.
48. Stanway G, Hyypia T. 1999. Parechoviruses. J. Virol. 73:5249-5254.
49. Johnson I, Hammond GW, Verma MR. 1985. Nosocomial coxsackie B4 virus infections in two chronic-care pediatric neurological wards. J. Infect. Dis. 151:1153-1156. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/151.6.1153.
50. Tebruegge M, Curtis N. 2009. Enterovirus infections in neonates. Semin. Fetal. Neonatal Med. 14:222-227. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.siny.2009.02.002.
51. Lopez Sastre JB, Coto Cotallo GD, Fernandez Colomer B, Grupo de Hospitales Castrillo. 2003. Neonatal invasive candidiasis: a prospective multicenter study of 118 cases. Am. J. Perinatol. 20:153-163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2003-40008.
52. Benjamin DK, Jr, Stoll BJ, Fanaroff AA, McDonald SA, Oh W, Higgins RD, Duara S, Poole K, Laptook A, Goldberg R, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. 2006. Neonatal candidiasis among extremely low birth weight infants: risk factors, mortality rates, and neurodevelopmental outcomes at 18 to 22 months. Pediatrics 117:84-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-2292.
53. Nizet V, Ferrieri P, Rubens CE. 2000. Molecular pathogenesis of group B streptococcal disease in newborns, p 180-221. In Stevens DL, Kaplan EL (ed), Streptococcal infections: clinical aspects, microbiology and molecular pathogenesis. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
54. Campbell JR, Hillier SL, Krohn MA, Ferrieri P, Zaleznik DF, Baker CJ. 2000. Group B streptococcal colonization and serotype-specific immunity in pregnant women at delivery. Obstet. Gynecol. 96:498-503. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0029-7844(00)00977-7.
55. Schuchat A, Oxtoby M, Cochi S, Sikes RK, Hightower A, Plikaytis B, Broome CV. 1990. Population-based risk factors for neonatal group B streptococcal disease: results of a cohort study in metropolitan Atlanta. J. Infect. Dis. 162:672-677. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/162.3.672.
56. Bizzarro MJ, Dembry LM, Baltimore RS, Gallagher PG. 2008. Changing patterns in neonatal Escherichia coli sepsis and ampicillin resistance in the era of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. Pediatrics 121:689-696. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-2171.
57. Shane AL, Stoll BJ. 2013. Recent developments and current issues in the epidemiology, diagnosis, and management of bacterial and fungal neonatal sepsis. Am. J. Perinatol. 30:131-142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0032-1333413.
58. Xie Y, Kim KJ, Kim KS. 2004. Current concepts on Escherichia coli K1 translocation of the blood-brain barrier. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 42:271-279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.femsim.2004.09.001.
59. McCracken G, Sarff L. 1974. Current status and therapy of neonatal E. coli meningitis. Hosp. Pract. 9:57-64.
60. Huang SH, Stins MF, Kim KS. 2000. Bacterial penetration across the blood-brain barrier during the development of neonatal meningitis. Microbes Infect. 2:1237-1244. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1286-4579(00)01277-6.
61. Gellin BG, Broome CV, Bibb WF, Weaver RE, Gaventa S, Mascola L. 1991. The epidemiology of listeriosis in the United States-1986. Listeriosis Study Group. Am. J. Epidemiol. 133:392-401.
62. Goulet V, Hedberg C, Le Monnier A, de Valk H. 2008. Increasing incidence of listeriosis in France and other European countries. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14:734-740. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1405.071395.
63. Niels le Souef P, Walters BN. 1981. Neonatal listeriosis: a summer outbreak. Med. J. Aust. 2:188-191.
64. Wilson CB, Lewis DB. 1990. Basis and implications of selectively diminished cytokine production in neonatal susceptibility to infection. Rev. Infect. Dis. 12:S410-S420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/clinids/12.Supplement_4.S410.
65. Hunter CJ, Bean JF. 2013. Cronobacter: an emerging opportunistic pathogen associated with neonatal meningitis, sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis. J. Perinatol. 33:581-585. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jp.2013.26.
66. Andre P, Thebaud B, Guibert M, Audibert F, Lacaze-Masmonteil T, Dehan M. 2000. Maternal-fetal staphylococcal infections: a series report. Am. J. Perinatol. 17:423-427. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2000-13455.
67. D'Angio CT, McGowan KL, Baumgart S, St Geme J, Harris MC. 1989. Surface colonization with coagulase-negative staphylococci in premature neonates. J. Pediatr. 114:1029-1034. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016 /S0022-3476(89)80457-3.
68. Stoll BJ, Hansen N. 2003. Infections in VLBW infants: studies from the NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Semin. Perinatol. 27:293-301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0146-0005(03)00046-6.
69. Roque H, Abdelhak Y, Young BK. 1999. Intra amniotic candidiasis. Case report and meta-analysis of 54 cases. J. Perinat. Med. 27:253-262.
70. Darmstadt GL, Dinulos JG, Miller Z. 2000. Congenital cutaneous candidiasis: clinical presentation, pathogenesis, and management guidelines. Pediatrics 105:438-444. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.105.2.438.
71. Kaufman D, Fairchild KD. 2004. Clinical microbiology of bacterial and fungal sepsis in very-low-birth-weight infants. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 17: 638-680. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/CMR.17.3.638-680.2004.
72. Morris SR, Bauer HM, Samuel MC, Gallagher D, Bolan G. 2008. Neonatal herpes morbidity and mortality in California, 1995-2003. Sex. Transm. Dis. 35:14-18.
73. Gutierrez KM, Falkovitz Halpern MS, Maldonado Y, Arvin AM. 1999. The epidemiology of neonatal herpes simplex virus infections in California from 1985 to 1995. J. Infect. Dis. 180:199-202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/314848.
74. Whitley R, Davis EA, Suppapanya N. 2007. Incidence of neonatal herpes simplex virus infections in a managed-care population. Sex. Transm. Dis. 34:704-708. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.olq.0000258432.33412.e2.
75. Brown ZA, Wald A, Morrow RA, Selke S, Zeh J, Corey L. 2003. Effect of serologic status and cesarean delivery on transmission rates of herpes simplex virus from mother to infant. JAMA 289:203-209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.289.2.203.
76. Corey L, Wald A. 2009. Maternal and neonatal herpes simplex virus infections. N. Engl. J. Med. 361:1376-1385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056 /NEJMra0807633.
77. Pinninti SG, Kimberlin DW. 2013. Neonatal herpes simplex virus infections. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 60:351-365.
78. Toth C, Harder S, Yager J. 2003. Neonatal herpes encephalitis: a case series and review of clinical presentation. Can. J. Neurol. Sci. 30:36-40. http://cjns.metapress.com/content/efkmww7erj3qth1y/fulltext.pdf.
79. Mizrahi EM, Tharp BR. 1982. A characteristic EEG pattern in neonatal herpes simplex encephalitis. Neurology 32:1215-1220. http://dx.doi.org /10.1212/WNL.32.11.1215.
80. Vossough A, Zimmerman RA, Bilaniuk LT, Schwartz EM. 2008. Imaging findings of neonatal herpes simplex virus type 2 encephalitis. Neuroradiology 50:355-366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00234-007-0349-3.
81. Hyypia T, Horsnell C, Maaronen M, Khan M, Kalkkinen N, Auvinen P, Kinnunen L, Stanway G. 1992. A distinct picornavirus group identified by sequence analysis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 89:8847-8851. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.89.18.8847.
82. Jenista JA, Powell KR, Menegus MA. 1984. Epidemiology of neonatal enterovirus infection. J. Pediatr. 104:685-690. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016 /S0022-3476(84)80944-0.
83. Rosenlew M, Stenvik M, Roivainen M, Jarvenpaa AL, Hovi T. 1999. A population-based prospective survey of newborn infants with suspected systemic infection: occurrence of sporadic enterovirus and adenovirus infections. J. Clin. Virol. 12:211-219.
84. Selvarangan R, Nzabi M, Selvaraju SB, Ketter P, Carpenter C, Harrison CJ. 2011. Human parechovirus 3 causing sepsis-like illness in children from midwestern United States. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 30:238-242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/INF.0b013e3181fbefc8.
85. Abzug MJ, Levin MJ, Rotbart HA. 1993. Profile of enterovirus disease in the first two weeks of life. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 12:820-824. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006454-199310000-00005.
86. Lake AM, Lauer BA, Clark JC, Wesenberg RL, McIntosh K. 1976. Enterovirus infections in neonates. J. Pediatr. 89:787-791. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(76)80808-6.
87. Modlin JF, Polk BF, Horton P, Etkind P, Crane E, Spiliotes A. 1981. Perinatal echovirus infection: risk of transmission during a community outbreak. N. Engl. J. Med. 305:368-371. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056 /NEJM198108133050703.
88. Haddad J, Gut JP, Wendling MJ, Astruc D, Jernite M, Obert G, Messer J. 1993. Enterovirus infections in neonates. A retrospective study of 21 cases. Eur. J. Med. 2:209-214.
89. Jones MJ, Kolb M, Votava HJ, Johnson RL, Smith TF. 1980. Intrauterine echovirus type II infection. Mayo Clin. Proc. 55:509-512.
90. Kaplan MH, Klein SW, McPhee J, Harper RG. 1983. Group B coxsackievirus infections in infants younger than three months of age: a serious childhood illness. Rev. Infect. Dis. 5:1019-1032. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/clinids/5.6.1019.
91. Modlin JF. 1986. Perinatal echovirus infection: insights from a literature review of 61 cases of serious infection and 16 outbreaks in nurseries. Rev. Infect. Dis. 8:918-926. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/clinids/8.6.918.
92. Brightman VJ, Scott TF, Westphal M, Boggs TR. 1966. An outbreak of coxsackie B-5 virus infection in a newborn nursery. J. Pediatr. 69:179-192. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(66)80318-9.
93. Boyd MT, Jordan SW, Davis LE. 1987. Fatal pneumonitis from congenital echovirus type 6 infection. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 6:1138-1139.
94. Burch GE, Sun SC, Chu KC, Sohal RS, Colcolough HL. 1968. Interstitial and coxsackievirus B myocarditis in infants and children. A comparative histologic and immunofluorescent study of 50 autopsied hearts. JAMA 203:1-8.
95. Strong BS, Young SA. 1995. Intrauterine coxsackie virus, group B type 1, infection: viral cultivation from amniotic fluid in the third trimester. Am. J. Perinatol. 12:78-79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-994407.
96. Philip AG, Larson EJ. 1973. Overwhelming neonatal infection with ECHO 19 virus. J. Pediatr. 82:391-397. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(73)80111-8.
97. Berkovich S, Smithwick EM. 1968. Transplacental infection due to ECHO virus type 22. J. Pediatr. 72:94-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016 /S0022-3476(68)80405-6.
98. Verboon-Maciolek MA, Groenendaal F, Hahn CD, Hellmann J, van Loon AM, Boivin G, de Vries LS. 2008. Human parechovirus causes encephalitis with white matter injury in neonates. Ann. Neurol. 64:266-273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.21445.
99. Wolthers KC, Benschop KS, Schinkel J, Molenkamp R, Bergevoet RM, Spijkerman IJ, Kraakman HC, Pajkrt D. 2008. Human parechoviruses as an important viral cause of sepsislike illness and meningitis in young children. Clin. Infect. Dis. 47:358-363. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086 /589752.
100. Nizet V, Klein JO. 2011. Enterovirus and parechovirus infections, p 756-799. In Remigton JS, Klein JO, Wilson CB, Nizet V, Maldonado YA (ed), Infectious diseases of the fetus and newborn, 7th ed. Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
101. Lim WH, Lien R, Huang YC, Chiang MC, Fu RH, Chu SM, Hsu JF, Yang PH. 2012. Prevalence and pathogen distribution of neonatal sepsis among very-low-birth-weight infants. Pediatr. Neonatol. 53:228-234. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pedneo.2012.06.003.
102. Verani JR, McGee L, Schrag SJ, Division of Bacterial Diseases National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2010. Prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease-revised guidelines from CDC, 2010. MMWR Recommend. Rep. 59(RR-10):1-36. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5910a1.htm.
103. Baker CJ, Edwards MS, Kasper DL. 1981. Role of antibody to native type III polysaccharide of group B Streptococcus in infant infection. Pediatrics 68:544-549.
104. Boyer KM, Gadzala CA, Burd LI, Fisher DE, Paton JB, Gotoff SP. 1983. Selective intrapartum chemoprophylaxis of neonatal group B streptococcal early-onset disease. I. Epidemiologic rationale. J. Infect. Dis. 148:795-801.
105. Zaleznik DF, Rench MA, Hillier S, Krohn MA, Platt R, Lee ML, Flores AE, Ferrieri P, Baker CJ. 2000. Invasive disease due to group B Streptococcus in pregnant women and neonates from diverse population groups. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30:276-281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/313665.
106. Oddie S, Embleton ND. 2002. Risk factors for early onset neonatal group B streptococcal sepsis: case-control study. BMJ 325:308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.325.7359.308.
107. Schuchat A, Zywicki SS, Dinsmoor MJ, Mercer B, Romaguera J, O'Sullivan MJ, Patel D, Peters MT, Stoll B, Levine OS. 2000. Risk factors and opportunities for prevention of early-onset neonatal sepsis: a multicenter case-control study. Pediatrics 105:21-26. http://dx.doi.org /10.1542/peds.105.1.21.
108. Verboon-Maciolek MA, Krediet TG, Gerards LJ, de Vries LS, Groenendaal F, van Loon AM. 2008. Severe neonatal parechovirus infection and similarity with enterovirus infection. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 27:241-245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/INF.0b013e31815c1b07.
109. Verboon-Maciolek MA, Groenendaal F, Cowan F, Govaert P, van Loon AM, de Vries LS. 2006. White matter damage in neonatal enterovirus meningoencephalitis. Neurology 66:1267-1269. http://dx.doi.org /10.1212/01.wnl.0000208429.69676.23.
110. Eyssette-Guerreau S, Boize P, Thibault M, Sarda H. 2013. Neonatal parechovirus infection, fever, irritability and myositis. Arch. Pediatr. 20: 772-774. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.arcped.2013.04.020.
111. Johnson CE, Whitwell JK, Pethe K, Saxena K, Super DM. 1997. Term newborns who are at risk for sepsis: are lumbar punctures necessary? Pediatrics 99:E10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.99.4.e10.
112. Manroe BL, Weinberg AG, Rosenfeld CR, Browne R. 1979. The neonatal blood count in health and disease. I. Reference values for neutrophilic cells. J. Pediatr. 95:89-98.
113. Christensen RD, Henry E, Jopling J, Wiedmeier SE. 2009. The CBC: reference ranges for neonates. Semin. Perinatol. 33:3-11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.semperi.2008.10.010.
114. Christensen RD, Rothstein G, Hill HR, Hall RT. 1985. Fatal early onset group B streptococcal sepsis with normal leukocyte counts. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. 4:242-245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006454-198505000-00006.
115. Engle WD, Rosenfeld CR. 1984. Neutropenia in high-risk neonates. J. Pediatr. 105:982-986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(84)80095-5.
116. Schmutz N, Henry E, Jopling J, Christensen RD. 2008. Expected ranges for blood neutrophil concentrations of neonates: the Manroe and Mouzinho charts revisited. J. Perinatol. 28:275-281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038 /sj.jp.7211916.
117. Christensen RD, Rothstein G. 1979. Pitfalls in the interpretation of leukocyte counts of newborn infants. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 72:608-611.
118. Lambert RM, Baer VL, Wiedmeier SE, Henry E, Burnett J, Christensen RD. 2009. Isolated elevated blood neutrophil concentration at altitude does not require NICU admission if appropriate reference ranges are used. J. Perinatol. 29:822-825. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jp.2009.3.
119. Manzoni P, Mostert M, Galletto P, Gastaldo L, Gallo E, Agriesti G, Farina D. 2009. Is thrombocytopenia suggestive of organism-specific response in neonatal sepsis? Pediatr. Int. 51:206-210. http://dx.doi.org /10.1111/j.1442-200X.2008.02689.x.
120. Murphy K, Weiner J. 2012. Use of leukocyte counts in evaluation of early-onset neonatal sepsis. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 31:16-19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/INF.0b013e31822ffc17.
121. Guida JD, Kunig AM, Leef KH, McKenzie SE, Paul DA. 2003. Platelet count and sepsis in very low birth weight neonates: is there an organismspecific response? Pediatrics 111:1411-1415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542 /peds.111.6.1411.
122. Schelonka RL, Chai MK, Yoder BA, Hensley D, Brockett RM, Ascher DP. 1996. Volume of blood required to detect common neonatal pathogens. J. Pediatr. 129:275-278. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016 /S0022-3476(96)70254-8.
123. Dietzman DE, Fischer GW, Schoenknecht FD. 1974. Neonatal Escherichia coli septicemia-bacterial counts in blood. J. Pediatr. 85:128-130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(74)80308-2.
124. Kellogg JA, Ferrentino FL, Goodstein MH, Liss J, Shapiro SL, Bankert DA. 1997. Frequency of low level bacteremia in infants from birth to two months of age. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 16:381-385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006454-199704000-00009.
125. Connell TG, Rele M, Cowley D, Buttery JP, Curtis N. 2007. How reliable is a negative blood culture result? Volume of blood submitted for culture in routine practice in a children's hospital. Pediatrics 119:891-896. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-0440.
126. Pourcyrous M, Korones SB, Bada HS, Patterson T, Baselski V. 1988. Indwelling umbilical arterial catheter: a preferred sampling site for blood culture. Pediatrics 81:821-825.
127. Anagnostakis D, Kamba A, Petrochilou V, Arseni A, Matsaniotis N. 1975. Risk of infection associated with umbilical vein catheterization. A prospective study in 75 newborn infants. J. Pediatr. 86:759-765.
128. Polin JI, Knox I, Baumgart S, Campman E, Mennuti MT, Polin RA. 1981. Use of umbilical cord blood culture for detection of neonatal bacteremia. Obstet. Gynecol. 57:233-237.
129. Gabay C, Kushner I. 1999. Acute-phase proteins and other systemic responses to inflammation. N. Engl. J. Med. 340:448-454. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199902113400607.
130. Philip AG. 1985. Response of C-reactive protein in neonatal group B streptococcal infection. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. 4:145-148. http://dx.doi.org /10.1097/00006454-198503000-00007.
131. Meem M, Modak JK, Mortuza R, Morshed M, Islam MS, Saha SK. 2011. Biomarkers for diagnosis of neonatal infections: a systematic analysis of their potential as a point-of-care diagnostics. J. Glob. Health 1:201-209. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3484777 /?report_classic.
132. Peltola H, Jaakkola M. 1988. C-reactive protein in early detection of bacteremic versus viral infections in immunocompetent and compromised children. J. Pediatr. 113:641-646. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016 /S0022-3476(88)80372-X.
133. Benitz WE, Han MY, Madan A, Ramachandra P. 1998. Serial serum C-reactive protein levels in the diagnosis of neonatal infection. Pediatrics 102:E41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.102.4.e41.
134. Altunhan H, Annagur A, Ors R, Mehmetoglu I. 2011. Procalcitonin measurement at 24 hours of age may be helpful in the prompt diagnosis of early-onset neonatal sepsis. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 15:e854-e858. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2011.09.007.
135. Monneret G, Labaune JM, Isaac C, Bienvenu F, Putet G, Bienvenu J. 1997. Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein levels in neonatal infections. Acta Paediatr. 86:209-212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.1997.tb08870.x.
136. Maniaci V, Dauber A, Weiss S, Nylen E, Becker KL, Bachur R. 2008. Procalcitonin in young febrile infants for the detection of serious bacterial infections. Pediatrics 122:701-710. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-3503.
137. Auriti C, Fiscarelli E, Ronchetti MP, Argentieri M, Marrocco G, Quondamcarlo A, Seganti G, Bagnoli F, Buonocore G, Serra G, Bacolla G, Mastropasqua S, Mari A, Corchia C, Prencipe G, Piersigilli F, Rava L, Di Ciommo V. 2012. Procalcitonin in detecting neonatal nosocomial sepsis. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 97:F368-F370. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/fetalneonatal-2010-194100.
138. Kuster H, Weiss M, Willeitner AE, Detlefsen S, Jeremias I, Zbojan J, Geiger R, Lipowsky G, Simbruner G. 1998. Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist and interleukin-6 for early diagnosis of neonatal sepsis 2 days before clinical manifestation. Lancet 352:1271-1277. http://dx.doi.org /10.1016/S0140-6736(98)08148-3.
139. Chiesa C, Signore F, Assumma M, Buffone E, Tramontozzi P, Osborn JF, Pacifico L. 2001. Serial measurements of C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 in the immediate postnatal period: reference intervals and analysis of maternal and perinatal confounders. Clin. Chem. 47:1016-1022. http://www.clinchem.org/content/47/6/1016.long.
140. Celik I.H, Demirel FG, Uras N, Oguz SS, Erdeve O, Biyikli Z, Dilmen U. 2010. What are the cut-off levels for IL-6 and CRP in neonatal sepsis? J. Clin. Lab. Anal. 24:407-412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcla.20420.
141. Abdollahi A, Shoar S, Nayyeri F, Shariat M. 2012. Diagnostic value of simultaneous measurement of procalcitonin, interleukin-6 and hs-CRP in prediction of early-onset neonatal sepsis. Mediterr. J. Hematol. Infect. Dis. 4:e2012028. http://dx.doi.org/10.4084/MJHID.2012.028.
142. Venkatesh M, Flores A, Luna RA, Versalovic J. 2010. Molecular microbiological methods in the diagnosis of neonatal sepsis. Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther. 8:1037-1048. http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/eri.10.89.
143. Peters RPH, van Agtmael MA, Danner SA, Savelkoul PHM, Vandenbroucke-Grauls CMJE. 2004. New developments in the diagnosis of bloodstream infections. Lancet Infect. Dis. 4:751-760. http://dx.doi.org /10.1016/S1473-3099(04)01205-8.
144. Weile J, Knabbe C. 2009. Current applications and future trends of molecular diagnostics in clinical bacteriology. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 394: 731-742. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00216-009-2779-8.
145. Lucignano B, Ranno S, Liesenfeld O, Pizzorno B, Putignani L, Bernaschi P, Menichella D. 2011. Multiplex PCR allows rapid and accurate diagnosis of bloodstream infections in newborns and children with suspected sepsis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 49:2252-2258. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02460-10.
146. Jordan JA, Durso MB. 2005. Real-time polymerase chain reaction for detecting bacterial DNA directly from blood of neonates being evaluated for sepsis. J. Mol. Diagn. 7:575-581. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1525-1578(10)60590-9.
147. Jordan JA, Durso MB, Butchko AR, Jones JG, Brozanski BS. 2006. Evaluating the near-term infant for early onset sepsis: progress and challenges to consider with 16S rDNA polymerase chain reaction testing. J. Mol. Diagn. 8:357-363. http://dx.doi.org/10.2353/jmoldx.2006.050138.
148. Reier-Nilsen T, Farstad T, Nakstad B, Lauvrak V, Steinbakk M. 2009. Comparison of broad range 16S rDNA PCR and conventional blood culture for diagnosis of sepsis in the newborn: a case control study. BMC Pediatr. 9:5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2431-9-5.
149. Andrade SS, Bispo PJM, Gales AC. 2008. Advances in the microbiological diagnosis of sepsis. Shock 30(Suppl 1):41-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/SHK.0b013e3181819f6c.
150. Jordan JA, Jones-Laughner J, Durso MB. 2009. Utility of pyrosequencing in identifying bacteria directly from positive blood culture bottles. J. Clin. Microbiol. 47:368-372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01991-08.
151. Clarridge JE, III. 2004. Impact of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis for identification of bacteria on clinical microbiology and infectious diseases. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 17:840-862. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128 /CMR.17.4.840-862.2004.
152. Ye RW, Wang T, Bedzyk L, Croker KM. 2001. Applications of DNA microarrays in microbial systems. J. Microbiol. Methods 47:257-272. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0167-7012(01)00308-6.
153. Shang S, Chen G, Wu Y, Du L, Zhao Z. 2005. Rapid diagnosis of bacterial sepsis with PCR amplification and microarray hybridization in 16S rRNA gene. Pediatr. Res. 58:143-148. http://dx.doi.org/10.1203/01.PDR.0000169580.64191.8B.
154. Cleven BE, Palka-Santini M, Gielen J, Meembor S, Kronke M, Krut O. 2006. Identification and characterization of bacterial pathogens causing bloodstream infections byDNAmicroarray. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44:2389-2397. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02291-05.
155. Visser VE, Hall RT. 1979. Urine culture in the evaluation of suspected neonatal sepsis. J. Pediatr. 94:635-638. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(79)80040-2.
156. Riskin A, Toropine A, Bader D, Hemo M, Srugo I, Kugelman A. 2013. Is it justified to include urine cultures in early (< 72 hours) neonatal sepsis evaluations of term and late preterm infants? Am. J. Perinatol. 30:499-504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0032-1329180.
157. Tamim MM, Alesseh H, Aziz H. 2003. Analysis of the efficacy of urine culture as part of sepsis evaluation in the premature infant. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 22:805-808. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.inf.0000083822.31857.43.
158. Kramer MS, Tange SM, Drummond KN, Mills EL. 1994. Urine testing in young febrile children: a risk-benefit analysis. J. Pediatr. 125:6-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(94)70114-8.
159. Bonadio WA. 1987. Urine culturing technique in febrile infants. Pediatr. Emerg. Care 3:75-78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006565-198706000-00003.
160. Pryles CV, Atkin MD, Morse TS, Welch KJ. 1959. Comparative bacteriologic study of urine obtained from children by percutaneous suprapubic aspiration of the bladder and by catheter. Pediatrics 24:983-991.
161. Leong YY, Tan KW. 1976. Bladder aspiration for diagnosis of urinary tract infection in infants and young children. J. Singapore Paediatr. Soc. 18:43-47.
162. Downs SM. 1999. Technical report: urinary tract infections in febrile infants and young children. The Urinary Tract Subcommittee of the American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Quality Improvement. Pediatrics 103:e54. http://www.pediatricsdigest.mobi/content/103/4/e5 4.full.pdf_html.
163. Shaw KN, McGowan KL, Gorelick MH, Schwartz JS. 1998. Screening for urinary tract infection in infants in the emergency department: which test is best? Pediatrics 101:E1. http://www.pediatricsdigest.mobi/content /101/6/e1.full.pdf_html.
164. Eldadah M, Frenkel LD, Hiatt IM, Hegyi T. 1987. Evaluation of routine lumbar punctures in newborn infants with respiratory distress syndrome. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 6:243-246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097 /00006454-198703000-00005.
165. Isaacs D, Barfield CP, Grimwood K, McPhee AJ, Minutillo C, Tudehope DI. 1995. Systemic bacterial and fungal infections in infants in Australian neonatal units. Australian Study Group for Neonatal Infections. Med. J. Aust. 162:198-201.
166. Garges HP, Moody MA, Cotten CM, Smith PB, Tiffany KF, Lenfestey R, Li JS, Fowler VG, Benjamin DK. 2006. Neonatal meningitis: what is the correlation among cerebrospinal fluid cultures, blood cultures, and cerebrospinal fluid parameters? Pediatrics 117:1094-1100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-1132.
167. Prober CG, Dyner L. 2011. Central nervous system infections, p 2090-2095. In Kliegman RM, Stanton BF, Behrman RE, St Geme J, Schor N (ed), Nelson textbook of pediatrics, 19th ed. Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
168. Addy DP. 1987. When not to do a lumbar puncture. Arch. Dis. Child. 62:873-875. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.62.9.873.
169. Mellor DH. 1992. The place of computed tomography and lumbar puncture in suspected bacterial meningitis. Arch. Dis. Child. 67:1417-1419. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.67.12.1417.
170. Pollard AJ, Britto J, Nadel S, DeMunter C, Habibi P, Levin M. 1999. Emergency management of meningococcal disease. Arch. Dis. Child. 80: 290-296. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.80.3.290.
171. Kestenbaum LA, Ebberson J, Zorc JJ, Hodinka RL, Shah SS. 2010. Defining cerebrospinal fluid white blood cell count reference values in neonates and young infants. Pediatrics 125:257-264. http://dx.doi.org /10.1542/peds.2009-1181.
172. Martin-Ancel A, Garcia-Alix A, Salas S, Del Castillo F, Cabanas F, Quero J. 2006. Cerebrospinal fluid leucocyte counts in healthy neonates. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 91:F357-F358. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2005.082826.
173. Ahmed A, Hickey SM, Ehrett S, Trujillo M, Brito F, Goto C, Olsen K, Krisher K, McCracken GH. 1996. Cerebrospinal fluid values in the term neonate. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 15:298-303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097 /00006454-199604000-00004.
174. Nascimento-Carvalho CM, Moreno-Carvalho OA. 1998. Normal cerebrospinal fluid values in full-term gestation and premature neonates. Arq. Neuropsiquiatr. 56:375-380. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0004-282X1998000300005.
175. Shah SS, Aronson PL, Mohamad Z, Lorch SA. 2011. Delayed acyclovir therapy and death among neonates with herpes simplex virus infection. Pediatrics 128:1153-1160. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-0177.
176. Byington CL, Kendrick J, Sheng X. 2011. Normative cerebrospinal fluid profiles in febrile infants. J. Pediatr. 158:130-134. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.07.022.
177. Chadwick SL, Wilson JW, Levin JE, Martin JM. 2011. Cerebrospinal fluid characteristics of infants who present to the emergency department with fever: establishing normal values by week of age. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 30:e63-e67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/INF.0b013e31820ad2ba.
178. Smith PB, Garges HP, Cotton CM, Walsh TJ, Clark RH, Benjamin DK, Jr. 2008. Meningitis in preterm neonates: importance of cerebrospinal fluid parameters. Am. J. Perinatol. 25:421-426. http://dx.doi.org /10.1055/s-0028-1083839.
179. Smith PB, Cotten CM, Garges HP, Tiffany KF, Lenfestey RW, Moody MA, Li JS, Benjamin DK. 2006. A comparison of neonatal Gramnegative rod and Gram-positive cocci meningitis. J. Perinatol. 26:111-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.jp.7211438.
180. Bonadio WA, Smith DS, Goddard S, Burroughs J, Khaja G. 1990. Distinguishing cerebrospinal fluid abnormalities in children with bacterial meningitis and traumatic lumbar puncture. J. Infect. Dis. 162:251-254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/162.1.251.
181. Mazor SS, McNulty JE, Roosevelt GE. 2003. Interpretation of traumatic lumbar punctures: who can go home? Pediatrics 111:525-528. http: //pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/111/3/525.long.
182. Greenberg RG, Smith PB, Cotten CM, Moody MA, Clark RH, Benjamin DK. 2008. Traumatic lumbar punctures in neonates: test performance of the cerebrospinal fluid white blood cell count. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 27:1047-1051. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/INF.0b013e31817e519b.
183. Krajden S, Middleton PJ. 1983. Enterovirus infections in the neonate. Clin. Pediatr. (Phila.) 22:87-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000992288302200201.
184. Rajesh NT, Dutta S, Prasad R, Narang A. 2010. Effect of delay in analysis on neonatal cerebrospinal fluid parameters. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 95:F25-F29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2008.150292.
185. Shah SS, Ebberson J, Kestenbaum LA, Hodinka RL, Zorc JJ. 2011. Age-specific reference values for cerebrospinal fluid protein concentration in neonates and young infants. J. Hosp. Med. 6:22-27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jhm.711.
186. Wolf H, Hoepffner L. 1961. The cerebrospinal fluid in the newborn and premature infant. World Neurol. 2:871-878.
187. Gyllensward A, Malmstrom S. 1962. The cerebrospinal fluid in immature infants. Acta Paediatr. Suppl. 135:54-62.
188. Sarff LD, Platt LH, McCracken GH, Jr. 1976. Cerebrospinal fluid evaluation in neonates: comparison of high-risk infants with and without meningitis. J. Pediatr. 88:473-477. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(76)80271-5.
189. Rodriguez AF, Kaplan SL, Mason EO, Jr. 1990. Cerebrospinal fluid values in the very low birth weight infant. J. Pediatr. 116:971-974. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(05)80663-8.
190. Nijhuis M, van Maarseveen N, Schuurman R, Verkuijlen S, de Vos M, Hendriksen K, van Loon AM. 2002. Rapid and sensitive routine detection of all members of the genus Enterovirus in different clinical specimens by real-time PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40:3666-3670. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.40.10.3666-3670.2002.
191. Benschop K, Molenkamp R, van der Ham A, Wolthers K, Beld M. 2008. Rapid detection of human parechoviruses in clinical samples by real-time PCR. J. Clin. Virol. 41:69-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2007.10.004.
192. Nix WA, Maher K, Johansson ES, Niklasson B, Lindberg AM, Pallansch MA, Oberste MS. 2008. Detection of all known parechoviruses by real-time PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46:2519-2524. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00277-08.
193. Beld M, Minnaar R, Weel J, Sol C, Damen M, van der Avoort H, Wertheim-van Dillen P, van Breda A, Boom R. 2004. Highly sensitive assay for detection of enterovirus in clinical specimens by reverse transcription-PCR with an armoredRNAinternal control. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42:3059-3064. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.42.7.3059-3064.2004.
194. Whitley RJ. 1996. Herpes simplex viruses, p 2297-2342. In Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM (ed), Fields virology, 3rd ed. Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, PA.
195. Whitley RJ, Corey L, Arvin A, Lakeman FD, Sumaya CV, Wright PF, Dunkle LM, Steele RW, Soong SJ, Nahmias AJ. 1988. Changing presentation of herpes simplex virus infection in neonates. J. Infect. Dis. 158:109-116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/158.1.109.
196. Kimberlin DW, Lin CY, Jacobs RF, Powell DA, Frenkel LM, Gruber WC, Rathore M, Bradley JS, Diaz PS, Kumar M, Arvin AM, Gutierrez K, Shelton M, Weiner LB, Sleasman JW, de Sierra TM, Soong SJ, Kiell J, Lakeman FD, Whitley RJ, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Collaborative Antiviral Study Group. 2001. Natural history of neonatal herpes simplex virus infections in the acyclovir era. Pediatrics 108:223-229. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.108.2.223.
197. Whitley RJ, Yeager A, Kartus P, Bryson Y, Connor JD, Alford CA, Nahmias A, Soong SJ. 1983. Neonatal herpes simplex virus infection: follow-up evaluation of vidarabine therapy. Pediatrics 72:778-785.
198. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2012. Herpes simplex, p 398-408. In Pickering LK, Baker CJ, Kimberlin DW, Long SS (ed), Red book: 2012 report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. American Academy of Pediatrics, Elk Grove Village, IL.
199. Kimberlin DW, Lakeman FD, Arvin AM, Prober CG, Corey L, Powell DA, Burchett SK, Jacobs RF, Starr SE, Whitley RJ. 1996. Application of the polymerase chain reaction to the diagnosis and management of neonatal herpes simplex virus disease. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Collaborative Antiviral Study Group. J. Infect. Dis. 174:1162-1167.
200. Kimura H, Futamura M, Kito H, Ando T, Goto M, Kuzushima K, Shibata M, Morishima T. 1991. Detection of viral DNA in neonatal herpes simplex virus infections: frequent and prolonged presence in serum and cerebrospinal fluid. J. Infect. Dis. 164:289-293. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/164.2.289.
201. Kimberlin DW. 2007. Herpes simplex virus infections of the newborn. Semin. Perinatol. 31:19-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.semperi.2007.01.003.
202. Malm G, Forsgren M. 1999. Neonatal herpes simplex virus infections: HSV DNA in cerebrospinal fluid and serum. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 81:F24-F29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/fn.81.1.F24.
203. Diamond C, Mohan K, Hobson A, Frenkel L, Corey L. 1999. Viremia in neonatal herpes simplex virus infections. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 18: 487-489. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006454-199906000-00002.
204. Lim KA, Benyesh-Melnick M. 1960. Typing of viruses by combinations of antiserum pools. Application to typing of enteroviruses (Coxsackie and ECHO). J. Immunol. 84:309-317.
205. Benschop KS, Schinkel J, Luken ME, van den Broek PJ, Beersma MF, Menelik N, van Eijk HW, Zaaijer HL, VandenBroucke-Grauls CM, Beld MG, Wolthers KC. 2006. Fourth human parechovirus serotype. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12:1572-1575. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1210.051647.
206. Abed Y, Boivin G. 2006. Human parechovirus types 1, 2 and 3 infections in Canada. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12:969-975. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201 /eid1206.051675.
207. Corless CE, Guiver M, Borrow R, Edwards-Jones V, Fox AJ, Kaczmarski EB, Mutton KJ. 2002. Development and evaluation of a 'real-time' RT-PCR for the detection of enterovirus and parechovirus RNA in CSF and throat swab samples. J. Med. Virol. 67:555-562. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.10138.
208. Baumgarte S, de Souza Luna LK, Grywna K, Panning M, Drexler JF, Karsten C, Huppertz HI, Drosten C. 2008. Prevalence, types, and RNA concentrations of human parechoviruses, including a sixth parechovirus type, in stool samples from patients with acute enteritis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46:242-248. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01468-07.
209. Arola A, Santti J, Ruuskanen O, Halonen P, Hyypia T. 1996. Identification of enteroviruses in clinical specimens by competitive PCR followed by genetic typing using sequence analysis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:313-318.
210. Chapman NM, Tracy S, Gauntt CJ, Fortmueller U. 1990. Molecular detection and identification of enteroviruses using enzymatic amplification and nucleic acid hybridization. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28:843-850.
211. Selvaraju SB, Nix WA, Oberste MS, Selvarangan R. 2013. Optimization of a combined human parechovirus-enterovirus real-time reverse transcription-PCR assay and evaluation of a new parechovirus 3-specific assay for cerebrospinal fluid specimen testing. J. Clin. Microbiol. 51:452-458. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01982-12.
212. Kost CB, Rogers B, Oberste MS, Robinson C, Eaves BL, Leos K, Danielson S, Satya M, Weir F, Nolte FS. 2007. Multicenter beta trial of the GeneXpert enterovirus assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45:1081-1086. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01718-06.
213. McManus MC. 1997. Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents. Am. J. Health Syst. Pharm. 54:1420-1433, quiz 1444-1446.
214. Jacqz-Aigrain E, Zhao W, Sharland M, van den Anker JN. 2013. Use of antibacterial agents in the neonate: 50 years of experience with vancomycin administration. Semin. Fetal Neonatal Med. 18:28-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.siny.2012.10.003.
215. Walker LA, Gow NA, Munro CA. 2010. Fungal echinocandin resistance. Fungal Genet. Biol. 47:117-126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fgb.2009.09.003.
216. Chandel DS, Johnson JA, Chaudhry R, Sharma N, Shinkre N, Parida S, Misra PR, Panigrahi P. 2011. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamaseproducing Gram-negative bacteria causing neonatal sepsis in India in rural and urban settings. J. Med. Microbiol. 60:500-507.
217. Dubois V, De Barbeyrac B, Rogues AM, Arpin C, Coulange L, Andre C, M'zali F, Megraud F, Quentin C. 2010. CTX-M-producing Escherichia coli in a maternity ward: a likely community importation and evidence of mother-to-neonate transmission. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 65:1368-1371. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkq153.
218. Bradford PA. 2001. Extended-spectrum-lactamases in the 21st century: characterization, epidemiology, and detection of this important resistance threat. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14:933-951. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/CMR.14.4.933-951.2001.
219. Pitout JD, Laupland KB. 2008. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamaseproducing Enterobacteriaceae: an emerging public-health concern. Lancet Infect. Dis. 8:159-166.
220. Ballot DE, Nana T, Sriruttan C, Cooper PA. 2012. Bacterial bloodstream infections in neonates in a developing country. ISRN Pediatr. 2012:508512. http://dx.doi.org/10.5402/2012/508512.
221. Hsueh PR, Badal RE, Hawser SP, Hoban DJ, Bouchillon SK, Ni Y, Paterson DL, 2008 Asia-Pacific SMART Group. 2010. Epidemiology and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of aerobic and facultative Gramnegative bacilli isolated from patients with intra-abdominal infections in the Asia-Pacific region: 2008 results from SMART (Study for Monitoring Antimicrobial Resistance Trends). Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 36:408-414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2010.07.002.
222. Villegas MV, Kattan JN, Quinteros MG, Casellas JM. 2008. Prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in South America. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 14(Suppl 1):154-158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2007.01869.x.
223. Doi Y, Park YS, Rivera JI, Adams-Haduch JM, Hingwe A, Sordillo EM, Lewis JS, II, Howard WJ, Johnson LE, Polsky B, Jorgensen JH, Richter SS, Shutt KA, Paterson DL. 2013. Community-associated extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli infection in the United States. Clin. Infect. Dis. 56:641-648. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cis942.
224. MacGowan A, Wootton M, Bowker K, Holt HA, Reeves D. 1998. Ampicillin-aminoglycoside interaction studies using Listeria monocytogenes. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 41:417-418. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093 /jac/41.3.417.
225. Fink S, Karp W, Robertson A. 1987. Ceftriaxone effect on bilirubinalbumin binding. Pediatrics 80:873-875.
226. Schaad UB, Wedgwood-Krucko J, Tschaeppeler H. 1988. Reversible ceftriaxone-associated biliary pseudolithiasis in children. Lancet ii:1411-1413.
227. Avci Z, Koktener A, Uras N, Catal F, Karadag A, Tekin O, Degirmencioglu H, Baskin E. 2004. Nephrolithiasis associated with ceftriaxone therapy: a prospective study in 51 children. Arch. Dis. Child. 89:1069-1072. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2003.044156.
228. Dulac Y, Bouissou F, Azema C, Barthe P, Baunin C, Normand-Gottis M. 1995. Anuria caused by urinary lithiasis induced by ceftriaxone in a 6-year-old child. Presse Med. 24:916.
229. Prince JS, Senac MO, Jr. 2003. Ceftriaxone-associated nephrolithiasis and biliary pseudolithiasis in a child. Pediatr. Radiol. 33:648-651. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00247-003-0963-0.
230. Bradley JS, Wassel RT, Lee L, Nambiar S. 2009. Intravenous ceftriaxone and calcium in the neonate: assessing the risk for cardiopulmonary adverse events. Pediatrics 123:e609-e613. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-3080.
231. Cordero L, Sananes M, Ayers LW. 1999. Bloodstream infections in a neonatal intensive-care unit: 12 years' experience with an antibiotic control program. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 20:242-246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/501619.
232. Nagano N, Nagano Y, Toyama M, Kimura K, Tamura T, Shibayama K, Arakawa Y. 2012. Nosocomial spread of multidrug-resistant group B streptococci with reduced penicillin susceptibility belonging to clonal complex 1. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 67:849-856. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkr546.
233. Dahesh S, Hensler ME, Van Sorge NM, Gertz RE, Jr, Schrag S, Nizet V, Beall BW. 2008. Point mutation in the group B streptococcal pbp2x gene conferring decreased susceptibility to beta-lactam antibiotics. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52:2915-2918. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128 /AAC.00461-08.
234. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2012. Group B strep, p 680-685. In Pickering LK, Baker CJ, Kimberlin DW, Long SS (ed), Red book: 2012 report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. American Academy of Pediatrics, Elk Grove Village, IL.
235. Edwards MS, Baker CJ. 2012. Streptococcus agalactiae (group B streptococcus), p 707-712. In Long SS, Pickering LK, Prober CG (ed), Principles and practice of pediatric infectious diseases, 4th ed. Elsevier, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
236. Edwards MS, Baker CJ. 2013. Treatment and outcome of bacterial meningitis in the neonate. In Basow DS (ed), UpToDate. UpToDate, Waltham, MA. http://www.uptodate.com/contents/treatment-and-outc ome-of-bacterial-meningitis-in-the-neonate?source_preview&anchor _H9&selectedTitle_3_150#H9. Accessed 11 November 2013.
237. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2012. Escherichia coli and other gram-negative bacilli (septicemia and meningitis in neonates), p 321-324. In Pickering LK, Baker CJ, Kimberlin DW, Long SS (ed), Red book: 2012 report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. American Academy of Pediatrics, Elk Grove Village, IL.
238. Arrieta A. 1997. Use of meropenem in the treatment of serious infections in children: review of the current literature. Clin. Infect. Dis. 24(Suppl 2):S207-S212.
239. van den Anker JN, Pokorna P, Kinzig-Schippers M, Martinkova J, de Groot R, Drusano GL, Sorgel F. 2009. Meropenem pharmacokinetics in the newborn. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53:3871-3879. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00351-09.
240. Messerschmidt A, Prayer D, Olischar M, Pollak A, Birnbacher R. 2004. Brain abscesses after Serratia marcescens infection on a neonatal intensive care unit: differences on serial imaging. Neuroradiology 46:148-152. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00234-003-1140-8.
241. Kline MW, Kaplan SL. 1987. Citrobacter diversus and neonatal brain abscess. Pediatr. Neurol. 3:178-180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0887-8994(87)90089-0.
242. Bowen AB, Braden CR. 2006. Invasive Enterobacter sakazakii disease in infants. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12:1185-1189. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201 /eid1208.051509.
243. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2012. Listeria monocytogenes infection, p 471-474. In Pickering LK, Baker CJ, KimberlinDW, Long SS (ed), Red book: 2012 report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. American Academy of Pediatrics, Elk Grove Village, IL.
244. Schweizer ML, Furuno JP, Harris AD, Johnson JK, Shardell MD, McGregor JC, Thom KA, Cosgrove SE, Sakoulas G, Perencevich EN. 2011. Comparative effectiveness of nafcillin or cefazolin versus vancomycin in methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. BMC Infect. Dis. 11:279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-11-279.
245. Deville JG, Adler S, Azimi PH, Jantausch BA, Morfin MR, Beltran S, Edge-Padbury B, Naberhuis-Stehouwer S, Bruss JB. 2003. Linezolid versus vancomycin in the treatment of known or suspected resistant gram-positive infections in neonates. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 22:S158-S163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.inf.0000086955.93702.c7.
246. Yilmaz A, Dalgic N, Musluman M, Sancar M, Colak I, Aydin Y. 2010. Linezolid treatment of shunt-related cerebrospinal fluid infections in children. J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 5:443-448. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171 /2009.12.PEDS09421.
247. Garazzino S, Tovo PA. 2011. Clinical experience with linezolid in infants and children. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 66(Suppl 4):iv23-iv41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkr074.
248. Yogev R, Damle B, Levy G, Nachman S. 2010. Pharmacokinetics and distribution of linezolid in cerebrospinal fluid in children and adolescents. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 29:827-830. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/INF.0b013e3181df4b9a.
249. Tripathi N, Watt K, Benjamin DK, Jr. 2012. Treatment and prophylaxis of invasive candidiasis. Semin. Perinatol. 36:416-423. http://dx.doi.org /10.1053/j.semperi.2012.06.003.
250. Steinbach WJ, Roilides E, Berman D, Hoffman JA, Groll AH, Bin-Hussain I, Palazzi DL, Castagnola E, Halasa N, Velegraki A, Dvorak CC, Charkabarti A, Sung L, Danziger-Isakov L, Lachenauer C, Arrieta A, Knapp K, Abzug MJ, Ziebold C, Lehrnbecher T, Klingspor L, Warris A, Leckerman K, Martling T, Walsh TJ, Benjamin DK, Jr, Zaoutis TE, International Pediatric Fungal Network. 2012. Results from a prospective, international, epidemiologic study of invasive candidiasis in children and neonates. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 31:1252-1257. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/INF.0b013e3182737427.
251. Rex JH, Walsh TJ, Sobel JD, Filler SG, Pappas PG, Dismukes WE, Edwards JE. 2000. Practice guidelines for the treatment of candidiasis. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30:662-678. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/313749.
252. Anderson-Berry A, Brinton B, Lyden E, Faix RG. 2011. Risk factors associated with development of persistent coagulase-negative staphylococci bacteremia in the neonate and associated short-term and discharge morbidities. Neonatology 99:23-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000292567.
253. Ascher SB, Smith PB, Watt K, Benjamin DK, Cohen-Wolkowiez M, Clark RH, Benjamin DK, Jr, Moran C. 2012. Antifungal therapy and outcomes in infants with invasive Candida infections. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 31:439-443. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/INF.0b013e3182467a72.
254. Kimberlin DW, Whitley RJ, Wan W, Powell DA, Storch G, Ahmed A, Palmer A, Sanchez PJ, Jacobs RF, Bradley JS, Robinson JL, Shelton M, Dennehy PH, Leach C, Rathore M, Abughali N, Wright P, Frenkel LM, Brady RC, Van Dyke R, Weiner LB, Guzman-Cottrill J, McCarthy CA, Griffin J, Jester P, Parker M, Lakeman FD, Kuo H, Lee CH, Cloud GA, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Collaborative Antiviral Study Group. 2011. Oral acyclovir suppression and neurodevelopment after neonatal herpes. N. Engl. J. Med. 365:1284-1292. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1003509.
255. Touw DJ, Westerman EM, Sprij AJ. 2009. Therapeutic drug monitoring of aminoglycosides in neonates. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 48:71-88. http: //dx.doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200948020-00001.
256. INIS Collaborative Group, Brocklehurst P, Farrell B, King A, Juszczak E, Darlow B, Haque K, Salt A, Stenson B, Tarnow-Mordi W. 2011. Treatment of neonatal sepsis with intravenous immune globulin. N. Engl. J. Med. 365:1201-1211. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1100441.
257. Schibler KR, Osborne KA, Leung LY, Le TV, Baker SI, Thompson DD. 1998. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of granulocyte colonystimulating factor administration to newborn infants with neutropenia and clinical signs of early-onset sepsis. Pediatrics 102:6-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.102.1.6.
258. INIS Study Collaborative Group. 2008. The INIS Study. International Neonatal Immunotherapy Study. Non-specific intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for suspected or proven neonatal sepsis: an international, placebo controlled, multicentre randomised trial. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 8:52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2393-8-52.
259. Gerdes JS. 2004. Diagnosis and management of bacterial infections in the neonate. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 51:939-959, viii-ix. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2004.03.009.
260. Edwards MS. 2013. Treatment and outcome of sepsis in term and late preterm infants. In BasowDS(ed), UpToDate. UpToDate, Waltham, MA. http: //www.uptodate.com/contents/treatment-and-outcome-of-sepsis-in-term-and-late-preterm-infants?source_preview&anchor_H9&selectedTitle _1_150#H9. Accessed 11 November 2013.
261. Pourcyrous M, Bada HS, Korones SB, Baselski V, Wong SP. 1993. Significance of serial C-reactive protein responses in neonatal infection and other disorders. Pediatrics 92:431-435.
262. Weil AA, Glaser CA, Amad Z, Forghani B. 2002. Patients with suspected herpes simplex encephalitis: rethinking an initial negative polymerase chain reaction result. Clin. Infect. Dis. 34:1154-1157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/339550.
263. Elbers JM, Bitnun A, Richardson SE, Ford-Jones EL, Tellier R, Wald RM, Petric M, Kolski H, Heurter H, MacGregor D. 2007. A 12-year prospective study of childhood herpes simplex encephalitis: is there a broader spectrum of disease? Pediatrics 119:e399-e407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-1494.
264. Paterson DL, Ko WC, Von Gottberg A, Casellas JM, Mulazimoglu L, Klugman KP, Bonomo RA, Rice LB, McCormack JG, Yu VL. 2001. Outcome of cephalosporin treatment for serious infections due to apparently susceptible organisms producing extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: implications for the clinical microbiology laboratory. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39: 2206-2212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.39.6.2206-2212.2001.
265. Koenig JM, Keenan WJ. 2009. Group B streptococcus and early-onset sepsis in the era of maternal prophylaxis. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 56: 689-708. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2009.04.003.
266. Lin CB, Hornik CP, Clark R, Cotten CM, Benjamin DK, Jr, Cohen-Wolkoweiz M, Smith PB, Wynn JL. 2012. Very low birth weight neonates who survive early-onset sepsis do not have an increased risk of developing late-onset sepsis. Early Hum. Dev. 88:905-909. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2012.07.009.
267. Stoll BJ, Hansen N, Fanaroff AA, Wright LL, Carlo WA, Ehrenkranz RA, Lemons JA, Donovan EF, Stark AR, Tyson JE, Oh W, Bauer CR, Korones SB, Shankaran S, Laptook AR, Stevenson DK, Papile LA, Poole WK. 2002. Late-onset sepsis in very low birth weight neonates: the experience of the NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Pediatrics 110: 285-291. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.110.2.285.
268. Shah DK, Doyle LW, Anderson PJ, Bear M, Daley AJ, Hunt RW, Inder TE. 2008. Adverse neurodevelopment in preterm infants with postnatal sepsis or necrotizing enterocolitis is mediated by white matter abnormalities on magnetic resonance imaging at term. J. Pediatr. 153:170-175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.02.033.
269. Taylor HG, Minich N, Bangert B, Filipek PA, Hack M. 2004. Longterm neuropsychological outcomes of very low birth weight: associations with early risks for periventricular brain insults. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 10:987-1004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355617704107078.
270. Pisani V, Bizzarri B, Cardi V, Pedicino R, Natale F, Stolfi I, Castronovo A, De Curtis M. 2012. Early onset sepsis in very low birth weight newborn infants. J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med. 25(Suppl 3):21-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/14767058.2012.712348.
271. Stoll BJ, Hansen NI, Higgins RD, Fanaroff AA, Duara S, Goldberg R, Laptook A, Walsh M, Oh W, Hale E, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. 2005. Very low birth weight preterm infants with early onset neonatal sepsis: the predominance of gramnegative infections continues in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network, 2002-2003. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 24:635-639. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.inf.0000168749.82105.64.
272. Whitley RJ, Nahmias AJ, Soong SJ, Galasso GG, Fleming CL, Alford CA. 1980. Vidarabine therapy of neonatal herpes simplex virus infection. Pediatrics 66:495-501.
273. Whitley R, Arvin A, Prober C, Corey L, Burchett S, Plotkin S, Starr S, Jacobs R, Powell D, Nahmias A. 1991. Predictors of morbidity and mortality in neonates with herpes simplex virus infections. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Collaborative Antiviral Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 324:450-454.
274. Isacsohn M, Eidelman AI, Kaplan M, Goren A, Rudensky B, Handsher R, Barak Y. 1994. Neonatal coxsackievirus group B infections: experience of a single department of neonatology. Isr. J. Med. Sci. 30:371-374.
275. Abzug MJ. 2001. Prognosis for neonates with enterovirus hepatitis and coagulopathy. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 20:758-763. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006454-200108000-00008.
276. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2008. Increased detections and severe neonatal disease associated with coxsackievirus B1 infection-United States, 2007. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 57:553-556. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5720a4.htm.
277. Leviton A, Dammann O, Engelke S, Allred E, Kuban KC, O'Shea TM, Paneth N, ELGAN Study Investigators. 2010. The clustering of disorders in infants born before the 28th week of gestation. Acta Paediatr. 99:1795-1800. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.01973.x.
278. Jobe AH, Bancalari E. 2001. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 163:1723-1729. http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/ajrccm.163.7.2011060.
279. Watterberg KL, Demers LM, Scott SM, Murphy S. 1996. Chorioamnionitis and early lung inflammation in infants in whom bronchopulmonary dysplasia develops. Pediatrics 97:210-215.
280. Kramer BW, Kramer S, Ikegami M, Jobe AH. 2002. Injury, inflammation, and remodeling in fetal sheep lung after intra-amniotic endotoxin. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 283:L452-L459. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajplung.00407.2001.
281. Kallapur SG, Moss TJ, Ikegami M, Jasman RL, Newnham JP, Jobe AH. 2005. Recruited inflammatory cells mediate endotoxin-induced lung maturation in preterm fetal lambs. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 172: 1315-1321. http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200506-1007OC.
282. Adams-Chapman I. 2012. Long-term impact of infection on the preterm neonate. Semin. Perinatol. 36:462-470. http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.semperi.2012.06.009.
283. Polin RA. 2008. Systemic infection and brain injury in the preterm infant. J. Pediatr. (Rio J.) 84:188-191. http://dx.doi.org/10.2223/JPED.1784.
284. Klinger G, Levy I, Sirota L, Boyko V, Lerner-Geva L, Reichman B, Israel Neonatal Network. 2010. Outcome of early-onset sepsis in a national cohort of very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 125:e736-e740. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-2017.
285. Procianoy RS, Silveira RC. 2012. Association between high cytokine levels with white matter injury in preterm infants with sepsis. Pediatr. Crit. Care Med. 13:183-187. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/PCC.0b013e3182231074.
286. Rezaie P, Dean A. 2002. Periventricular leukomalacia, inflammation and white matter lesions within the developing nervous system. Neuropathology 22:106-132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1789.2002.00438.x.
287. Edwards M, Baker C. 2001. Group B streptococcal infections, p 1091-1156. In Remington J, Klein J. (ed), Infectious diseases of the fetus and the newborn infant, 5th ed. WB Saunders Co, Philadelphia, PA.
288. Renna S, Bergamino L, Pirlo D, Rossi A, Furione M, Piralla A, Mascaretti M, Cristina E, Marazzi MG, Pietro PD. 21 January 2013. A case of neonatal human parechovirus encephalitis with a favourable outcome. Brain Dev. [Epub ahead of print.] http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2012.12.006.
289. Stafford IA, Stewart RD, Sheffield JS, Wendel GD, Jr, Sanchez PJ, McIntire DD, Roberts SW. 2012. Efficacy of maternal and neonatal chemoprophylaxis for early-onset group B streptococcal disease. Obstet. Gynecol. 120:123-129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e3182592451.
290. Van Dyke MK, Phares CR, Lynfield R, Thomas AR, Arnold KE, Craig AS, Mohle-Boetani J, Gershman K, Schaffner W, Petit S, Zansky SM, Morin CA, Spina NL, Wymore K, Harrison LH, Shutt KA, Bareta J, Bulens SN, Zell ER, Schuchat A, Schrag SJ. 2009. Evaluation of universal antenatal screening for group B streptococcus. N. Engl. J. Med. 360:2626-2636. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0806820.
291. Lin FY, Weisman LE, Azimi P, Young AE, Chang K, Cielo M, Moyer P, Troendle JF, Schneerson R, Robbins JB. 2011. Assessment of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis for the prevention of early-onset group B streptococcal disease. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 30:759-763. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/INF.0b013e31821dc76f.
292. Davies HD, Miller MA, Faro S, Gregson D, Kehl SC, Jordan JA. 2004. Multicenter study of a rapid molecular-based assay for the diagnosis of group B Streptococcus colonization in pregnant women. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39:1129-1135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/424518.
293. Faro JP, Bishop K, Riddle G, Ramirez MM, Katz AR, Turrentine MA, Faro S. 2013. Accuracy of an accelerated, culture-based assay for detection of group B streptococcus. Infect. Dis. Obstet. Gynecol. 2013:367935. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/367935.
294. Faro J, Katz A, Bishop K, Riddle G, Faro S. 2011. Rapid diagnostic test for identifying group B streptococcus. Am. J. Perinatol. 28:811-814. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0031-1285099.
295. Lin CY, Hsu CH, Huang FY, Chang JH, Hung HY, Kao HA, Peng CC, Jim WT, Chi H, Chiu NC, Chang TY, Chen CY, Chen CP. 2011. The changing face of early-onset neonatal sepsis after the implementation of a maternal group B Streptococcus screening and intrapartum prophylaxis policy-a study in one medical center. Pediatr. Neonatol. 52:78-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pedneo.2011.02.001.
296. Simoes JA, Aroutcheva AA, Heimler I, Faro S. 2004. Antibiotic resistance patterns of group B streptococcal clinical isolates. Infect. Dis. Obstet. Gynecol. 12:1-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10647440410001722269.
297. Pelaez LM, Gelber SE, Fox NS, Chasen ST. 2009. Inappropriate use of vancomycin for preventing perinatal group B streptococcal (GBS) disease in laboring patients. J. Perinat. Med. 37:487-489. http://dx.doi.org /10.1515/JPM.2009.090.
298. Committee on Infectious Diseases, Committee on Fetus and Newborn, Baker CJ, Byington CL, Polin RA. 2011. Policy statement-recommendations for the prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal (GBS) disease. Pediatrics 128:611-616. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1466.
299. Paccione KA, Wiesenfeld HC. 2013. Guideline adherence for intrapartum group B streptococci prophylaxis in penicillin-allergic patients. Infect. Dis. Obstet. Gynecol. 2013:917304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013 /917304.
300. Manning SD, Foxman B, Pierson CL, Tallman P, Baker CJ, Pearlman MD. 2003. Correlates of antibiotic-resistant group B streptococcus isolated from pregnant women. Obstet. Gynecol. 101:74-79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0029-7844(02)02452-3.
301. Ecker KL, Donohue PK, Kim KS, Shepard JA, Aucott SW. 2013. The impact of group B streptococcus prophylaxis on late-onset neonatal infections. J. Perinatol. 33:206-211. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jp.2012.76.
302. Glasgow TS, Young PC, Wallin J, Kwok C, Stoddard G, Firth S, Samore M, Byington CL. 2005. Association of intrapartum antibiotic exposure and late-onset serious bacterial infections in infants. Pediatrics 116:696-702. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-2421.
303. Baker CJ, Paoletti LC, Wessels MR, Guttormsen HK, Rench MA, Hickman ME, Kasper DL. 1999. Safety and immunogenicity of capsular polysaccharide-tetanus toxoid conjugate vaccines for group B streptococcal types Ia and Ib. J. Infect. Dis. 179:142-150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/314574.
304. Baker CJ, Kasper DL. 1985. Vaccination as a measure for prevention of neonatal GBS infection. Antibiot. Chemother. 35:281-290.
305. Omer SB, Orenstein WA, Koplan JP. 2013. Go big and go fast-vaccine refusal and disease eradication. N. Engl. J. Med. 368:1374-1376. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1300765.
306. Johri AK, Paoletti LC, Glaser P, Dua M, Sharma PK, Grandi G, Rappuoli R. 2006. Group B Streptococcus: global incidence and vaccine development. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 4:932-942. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038 /nrmicro1552.
307. Donati C, Rappuoli R. 2013. Reverse vaccinology in the 21st century: improvements over the original design. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1285:115-132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12046.
308. Baker CJ, Rench MA, Edwards MS, Carpenter RJ, Hays BM, Kasper DL. 1988. Immunization of pregnant women with a polysaccharide vaccine of group B streptococcus. N. Engl. J. Med. 319:1180-1185. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198811033191802.
309. Rodriguez-Granger J, Alvargonzalez JC, Berardi A, Berner R, Kunze M, Hufnagel M, Melin P, Decheva A, Orefici G, Poyart C, Telford J, Efstratiou A, Killian M, Krizova P, Baldassarri L, Spellerberg B, Puertas A, Rosa-Fraile M. 2012. Prevention of group B streptococcal neonatal disease revisited. TheDEVANIEuropean project. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 31:2097-2104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10096-012-1559-0.
310. Eschenbach DA. 2002. Prevention of neonatal group B streptococcal infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 347:280-281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056 /NEJMe020068.
311. Baker CJ, Rench MA, Fernandez M, Paoletti LC, Kasper DL, Edwards MS. 2003. Safety and immunogenicity of a bivalent group B streptococcal conjugate vaccine for serotypes II and III. J. Infect. Dis. 188:66-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/375536.
312. Baker CJ, Rench MA, Paoletti LC, Edwards MS. 2007. Dose-response to type V group B streptococcal polysaccharide-tetanus toxoid conjugate vaccine in healthy adults. Vaccine 25:55-63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.07.018.
313. Baker CJ, Paoletti LC, Rench MA, Guttormsen HK, Edwards MS, Kasper DL. 2004. Immune response of healthy women to 2 different group B streptococcal type V capsular polysaccharide-protein conjugate vaccines. J. Infect. Dis. 189: 1103-1112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/382193.
314. Edwards MS, Lane HJ, Hillier SL, Rench MA, Baker CJ. 2012. Persistence of functional antibodies to group B streptococcal capsular polysaccharides following immunization with glycoconjugate vaccines. Vaccine 30:4123-4126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.04.048.
315. Koumans EH, Rosen J, van Dyke MK, Zell E, Phares CR, Taylor A, Loft J, Schrag S, ABC and DHAP/RTI Teams. 2012. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of infections during pregnancy: implementation of recommended interventions, United States, 2003-2004. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 206:158. e1-158. e11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2011.08.027.
316. Zaleznik DF, Rench MA, Hillier S, Krohn MA, Platt R, Lee M-LT, Flores AE, Ferrieri P, Baker CJ. 2000. Invasive disease due to group B streptococcus in pregnant women and neonates from diverse population groups. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30:276-281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/313665.