Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents

American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy

Volumn 54, Issue 12, 1997, Pages 1420-1433

  McManus, M Claire ^a  

^a VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Anti infective agents; Enterococcus species; Mechanism of action; Resistance; Staphylococcus species

Indexed keywords

AMINOGLYCOSIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; AMOXICILLIN; AMPICILLIN; AZTREONAM; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; CEFOXITIN; CEPHALOSPORIN; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CHLORAMPHENICOL DERIVATIVE; CLAVULANIC ACID; CLINDAMYCIN; COTRIMOXAZOLE; ERYTHROMYCIN; GLYCOPEPTIDE; IMIPENEM; MACROLIDE; PENICILLIN DERIVATIVE; PENICILLIN G; QUINOLONE DERIVATIVE; RIFAMPICIN; TETRACYCLINE; TICARCILLIN; UREIDOPENICILLIN; VANCOMYCIN;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; ARTICLE; BACTERIAL MEMBRANE; BACTERIAL MUTATION; DRUG INACTIVATION; DRUG MECHANISM; ENTEROCOCCUS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; STAPHYLOCOCCUS;

EID: 0030986291     PISSN: 10792082     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ajhp/54.12.1420     Document Type: Article

References (131)

1. Mandell GL, Petri WA Jr. Sulfonamides, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, quinolones and agents for urinary tract infections. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE, Molinoff PB et al., eds. Goodman and Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1996:1057-72.
2. Neu HC. The crisis in antibiotic resistance. Science. 1992; 257:1064-73.
3. Sanders CC. Ciprofloxacin: in vitro activity, mechanism of action and resistance. Rev Infect Dis. 1988; 10:516-27.
4. Mandell GL, Petri WA Jr. Drugs used in the chemotherapy of tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium complex disease and leprosy. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE, Molinoff PB et al., eds. Goodman and Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1996:1155-74.
5. Chambers HF, Sande MA. Antimicrobial agents. General considerations. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE, Molinoff PB et al., eds. Goodman and Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1996:1029-56.
6. Chambers HF, Sande MA. The aminoglycosides. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE, Molinoff PB et al., eds. Goodman and Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1996:1103-21.
7. Kapusnik-Uner JE, Sande MA, Chambers HF. Tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, erythromycin and miscellaneous antibacterial agents. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE, Molinoff PB et al., eds. Goodman and Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1996:1123-53.
8. Vanden Bossche H, Koymans L, Moereels H. P450 inhibitors of use in medical treatment: focus on mechanism of action. Pharmacol Ther. 1995; 67:1-22.
9. Bryan LE. General mechanisms of resistance to antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1988; 22(suppl A):1-15.
10. Moreira BM, Daum SD. Antimicrobial resistance in staphylococci. Pediatr Clin N Am. 1995; 42:619-47.
11. Mandell GL, Petri WA Jr. Penicillins, cephalosporins and other β-lactam antibiotics. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE, Molinoff PB et al., eds. Goodman and Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1996:1073-101.
12. Nieto M, Perkins HR. Physiochemical properties of vancomycin and iodovancomycin and their complexes with diacetyl-L-lysyl-D-alanyl-D-alanine. Biochem J. 1971; 123:773-87.
13. Nieto M, Perkins HR. The specificity of combination between ristocetins and peptides related to bacterial cell wall mucopeptide precursors. Biochem J. 1971; 124:845-52.
14. Watanakunakorn C. The antibacterial action of vancomycin. Rev Infect Dis. 1981; 3:5210-5.
15. Harwick HJ, Kalmanson GM, Guze LB. In vitro activity of ampicillin or vancomycin combined with gentamicin or streptomycin against enterococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1973; 4:383-7.
16. Murray BE. New aspects of antimicrobial resistance and the resulting therapeutic dilemmas. J Infect Dis. 1991; 163:1184-94.
17. Gentry LO. Bacterial resistance. Orthop Clin North Am. 1991; 22:379-88.
18. Bryan LE, Kwan S. Mechanisms of aminoglycoside resistance of anaerobic bacteria and facultative bacteria grown anaerobically. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1981; 8(suppl D):1-8.
19. Kapusnik JE, Hackbarth CJ, Chambers HF et al. Single, large, daily dosing versus intermittent dosing of tobramycin for treating experimental pseudomonas pneumonia. J Infect Dis. 1988; 158:7-12.
20. Blaser J. Efficacy of once- and thrice-daily dosing of aminoglycosides in in vitro models of infection. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1991; 27(suppl C):21-8.
21. Nikaido H. Prevention of drug access to bacterial targets: permeability barriers and efflux. Science. 1994; 264:382-8.
22. Nakae T. Outer-membrane permeability of bacteria. CRC Crit Rev Microbiol. 1986; 13:1-62.
23. Fildes P. A rational approach to research in chemotherapy. Lancet. 1940; 1:955-7.
24. Woods DD. Relation of p-aminobenzoic acid to mechanisms of action of sulphanilamide. Br J Exp Pathol. 1940; 21:74-90.
25. Shafran SD. The basis of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. J Otolaryngol. 1990; 19(3):158-68.
26. Davies J. Inactivation of antibiotics and the dissemination of resistance genes. Science. 1994; 264:375-82.
27. Brisson Noel A, Arthur M, Courvalin P. Evidence for gene transfer from gram-positive cocci to Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol. 1988; 170:1739-45.
28. Arthur M, Brisson Noel A, Courvalin P. Origin and evolution of genes specifying resistance to macrolide, lincosamide and streptogramin antibiotics: data and hypotheses. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1987; 20:783-802.
29. Tally FP, Cuchural GJ Jr. Antibiotic resistance in anaerobic bacteria. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1988; 22(suppl A):63-71.
30. Livermore DM. Chromosomal beta-lactamase induction and stable-derepression in gram-negative rods. In: Livermore DM, ed. Beta-lactamase: current perspective. Winchester, United Kingdom: Theracom; 1988:13-26.
31. Spratt BG. Resistance to antibiotics mediated by target alterations. Science. 1994; 264:388-93.
32. Richmond MH, Sykes RB. The β-lactamases of gram-negative bacteria and their possible physiological role. Adv Microb Physiol. 1973; 9:31-88.
33. Bush K. Characterization of β-lactamases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1989; 33:259-76.
34. Livermore DM. Determinants of the activity of B-lactamase inhibitor combinations. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1993; 31(suppl A):9-21.
35. Yang Y, Livermore DM. Activity of temocillin against β-lactamase inducible and stably-derepressed enterobacteria. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1988; 22:299-306.
36. Jacobs JY, Livermore DM, Davy KWM. Pseudomonas aeruginosa β-lactamase as a defence against azlocillin, mezlocillin and piperacillin. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1984; 14:221-9.
37. Livermore DM. Clinical significance of beta-lactamase induction and stable derepression in gram-negative rods. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 1987; 6:439-45.
38. Sanders CC, Sanders WE. Clinical importance of inducible beta-lactamases in gram-negative bacteria. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 1987; 6:435-8.
39. Jimenez-Lucho VN, Saravolatz LD, Medeiros AA et al. Failure of therapy in pseudomonal endocarditis: selection of resistant mutants. J Infect Dis. 1986; 154:163-8.
40. Yang Y, Livermore DM. Interactions of meropenem with class 1 β-lactamases. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1989; 24(suppl A):149-59.
41. Matthew M. Plasmid-mediated β-lactamases of gram-negative bacteria: properties and distribution. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1979; 5:349-58.
42. Roy C, Foz A, Segura C et al. Plasmid-determined b-lactamases identified in a group of 204 ampicillin resistant Enterobacteriaceae. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1983; 12:507-10.
43. Medeiros AA. β-lactamases. Br Med Bull. 1984; 40:18-27.
44. Livermore DM, Moorsden F, Lindbridge MA et al. Behaviour of TEM β-lactamase as a resistance to mezlocillin, ampicillin and azlocillin in Escherichia coli. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1986; 17:139-46.
45. Livermore DM, Seetulsingh P. Susceptibility of Escherichia coli isolates with TEM-1 β-lactamase to combinations of BRL42715, tazobactam and clavulanate with piperacillin or amoxycillin. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1991; 27:761-7.
46. Cooksey R, Swenson J, Clark N et al. Patterns and mechanisms of β-lactam resistance amongst isolates of Escherichia coli from hospitals in the United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1990; 34:739-45.
47. Jacoby GA, Sutton L. β-Lactamases and β-lactam resistance in Escherichia coli. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1985; 28:703-6.
48. Blasquez J, Morosini MI, Negri MC et al. Single amino acid replacement at positions altered in naturally occurring extended-spectrum TEM β-lactamases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995; 39:145-9.
49. Bradford PA, Urban C, Jaiswal A et al. SHV-7, a novel cefotaxime-hydrolyzing β-lactamase, identified in Escherichia coli isolates from hospitalized nursing home patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995; 39:899-905.
50. Philippon A, Labia R, Jacoby GA. Extended-spectrum β-lactamases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1989; 33:1131-6.
51. Jacoby GA, Archer GL. New mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents. N Engl J Med. 1991; 324:601-12.
52. Jacoby GA, Medeiros AA. More extended-spectrum beta-lactamases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1991; 35:1697-704.
53. Sanders WE, Sanders CC. Piperacillin/tazobactam: a critical review of the evolving clinical literature. Clin Infect Dis. 1996; 22:107-23.
54. Neu HC. Current mechanisms of resistance to antimicrobial agents in microorganisms causing infection in the patient at risk for infection. Am J Med. 1984; 76(5A):11-27.
55. Nikaido H, Vaara N. Molecular basis of outer membrane permeability. Microbiol Rev. 1985; 49:1-32.
56. Nikaido H, Rosenberg EY, Foulds J. Porin channels in Escherichia coli: studies with beta-lactams in intact cells. J Bacteriol. 1983; 153:237-40.
57. Hooper DC. Quinolones. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Mandell, Douglas and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. 4th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1995:364-75.
58. Rice LB, Schlaes DM. Vancomycin resistance in the enterococcus. Relevance in pediatrics. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1995; 42:601-17.
59. Goodhart GL. In vivo vs. in vitro susceptibility of enterococcus to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. JAMA. 1984; 252: 2748-9.
60. Grayson ML, Thauvin-Eliopoulos C, Eliopoulos GM et al. Failure of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole therapy in experimental enterococcal endocarditis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1990; 34:1792-4.
61. Spera RV, Farber BF. Multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Drugs. 1994; 48:678-88.
62. Fontana R, Aldegheri M, Ligozzi M et al. Overproduction of a low-affinity penicillin-binding protein and high-level ampicillin resistance in Enterococcus faecium. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1994; 38:1980-3.
63. Rice LB, Marshall SH. Insertions of IS256-like element flanking the chromosomal β-lactamase gene of Enterococcus faecalis CX19. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1994; 38:693-701.
64. Rice LB, Carias LL, Marshall SH. Directly-repeated copies of IS256-like elements form the ends of enterococcal mobile element Tn5384. Paper presented at International Conference on Streptococcal Genetics. Santa Fe, NM; 1994.
65. Beauregard DA, Williams DH, Gwynn MN et al. Dimerization and membrane anchors in extracellular targeting of vancomycin group antibiotics. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995; 39:781-5.
66. Shlaes DM, Al-Obeid S, Shlaes JH et al. Inducible, transferable resistance to vancomycin in Enterococcus faecium, D399. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1989; 23:503-8.
67. Shlaes DM, Bouvet A, Devine C et al. Inducible, transferable resistance to vancomycin in Enterococcus faecalis, A256. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1989; 33:198-203.
68. Uttley AHC, Collins CH, Naidoo J et al. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Lancet. 1988; 1:57. Letter.
69. Williamson R, Al-Obeid S, Shlaes JH et al. Inducible resistance to vancomycin in Enterococcus faecium, D366. J Infect Dis. 1989; 159:1095-104.
70. Leclercq R, Derlot E, Duval J et al. Plasmid-mediated resistance to vancomycin and teicoplanin in Enterococcus faecium. N Engl J Med. 1988; 319:157-61.
71. Dutka-Malen S, Blaimont B, Wauters G et al. Emergence of high-level resistance to glycopeptides in Enterococcus gallinarum and Enterococcus casseliflavus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1994; 38:1675-7.
72. Walsh CT. Vancomycin resistance: decoding the molecular logic. Science. 1993; 261:308-9.
73. Handwerger S, Discotto J, Thanassi J et al. Insertional inactivation of a gene which controls expression of vancomycin resistance on plasmid pHKK100. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1992; 92:11-4.
74. Arthur M, Molinas C, Courvalin P. The VanS-VanR two-component regulatory system controls synthesis of depsipeptide peptidoglycan precursors in Enterococcus faecium BM4174. J Bacteriol. 1992; 174:2582-91.
75. Wright GD, Molinas C, Arthur M et al. Characterization of VanY, a DD-carboxypeptidase from vancomycin resistant Enterococcus faecium BM4147. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1992; 36:1514-8.
76. Gutmann L, Billot-Klein D, Al-Obeid S et al. Inducible carboxypeptidase activity in vancomycin resistant enterococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1992; 36:77-80.
77. Handwerger S, Skoble J, Discotto LF et al. Heterogeneity of the vanA gene cluster in clinical isolates of enterococci from the northeastern United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995; 39:362-8.
78. Evers S, Reynolds PE, Courvalin P. Sequence of the vanB and ddl genes encoding D-alanine:D-lactate and D-alanine:D-alanine ligases in vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis V583. Gene. 1994; 140:97-102.
79. Quintiliani R Jr, Evers S, Courvalin P. The vanB gene confers various levels of self-transferable resistance to vancomycin in enterococci. J Infect Dis. 1993; 167:1220-3.
80. Gold HS, Unal S, Cercenedo E et al. A gene conferring resistance to vancomycin but not teicoplanin in isolates of Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium demonstrates homology with vanB, vanA and vanC genes of enterococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1993; 37:1604-9.
81. Shlaes DM, Etter L, Gutmann L. Synergistic killing of vancomycin-resistant enterococci of classes A, B and C by combinations of vancomycin, penicillin and gentamicin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1991; 35:776-9.
82. Hayden MK, Trenholm GM, Schultz JE et al. In vivo development of teicoplanin resistance in a VanB Enterococcus faecium isolate. J Infect Dis. 1993; 167:1224-7.
83. Leclercq R, Derlot E, Duval J et al. Vancomycin resistance gene vanC is specific to Enterococcus gallinarum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1992; 36:2005-8.
84. Sande MA, Kapusnik-Uner JE, Mandell GL. Chemotherapy of microbial diseases: antimicrobial agents. In: Goodman AG, Rail TW, Nies AS et al., eds. Goodman and Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 8th ed. New York: Pergamon; 1990:1018-46.
85. Kaplan AH, Gilligan PH, Facklam RR. Recovery of resistant enterococci during vancomycin prophylaxis. J Clin Microbiol. 1988; 26:1216-8.
86. Livornese LL, Dias S, Samel C et al. Hospital-acquired infection with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium by electronic thermometers. Ann Intern Med. 1992; 117:112-6.
87. Karanfil LV, Murphy M, Josephson A et al. A cluster of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in an intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1992; 13:195-200.
88. Axalrod P, Talbot GH. Risk factors for acquisition of gentamicin-resistant enterococci: a multivariate analysis. Arch Intern Med. 1989; 149:1397-401.
89. Zervos MJ, Kaufman CA, Therasse PM et al. Nosocomial infection by gentamicin-resistant Streptococcus faecalis: an epidemiologic study. Ann Intern Med. 1987; 106:687-91.
90. Fantin B, Pierre J, Castela-Papin N et al. Importance of penicillinase production for activity of penicillin alone or in combination with sulbactam in experimental endocarditis due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1996; 40:1219-24.
91. Panlilio AL, Culver DH, Gaynes RP et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in US hospitals, 1975-1991. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1992; 13:582-6.
92. Schaberg DR, Culver DH, Gaynes RP. Major trends in the microbial etiology of nosocomial infection. Am J Med. 1991; 91:72S-5S.
93. Jones RN, Barry AL, Gardiner RV et al. The prevalence of staphylococcal resistance to penicillinase-resistant penicillins: a retrospective and prospective national surveillance trial of isolates from 40 medical centers. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1989; 12:385-94.
94. Froggart JW, Johnston JL, Galetto DW et al. Antimicrobial resistance in nosocomial isolates of Staphylococcus haemolyticus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1989; 33:460-6.
95. Weber DA, Goering RV. Tn4201, a β-lactamase transposon in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1988; 32:1164-9.
96. Sweeney HM, Cohen W. Wild-type strain of Staphylococcus aureus containing two genetic linkage groups for penicillinase production. J Bacteriol. 1968; 96:920-4.
97. Zscheck KK, Murray BE. Genes involved in the regulation of β-lactamase production in enterococci and staphylococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1993; 37:1966-70.
98. Tesch W, Ryffel C, Strassle A et al. Evidence of a novel staphylococcal mec-encoded element (mecA) controlling expression of penicillin-binding protein 2′. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1990; 34:1703-6.
99. Suzuki E, Kuwahara-Arai K, Richardson JF et al. Distribution of mec regulator genes in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus clinical strains. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1993; 37:1219-26.
100. Hackbarth CJ, Chambers HF. blaI and blaR regulate β-lactamase and PBP 2a production in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1993; 37:1144-9.
101. Ryffel C, Kayser FH, Berger-Bachi B. Correlation between regulation of mecA transcription and expression of methicillin resistance in staphylococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1992; 36:25-31.
102. Berger-Bachi B, Strassle A, Kayser FH. Natural methicillin resistance in comparison with that selected by in-vitro drug exposure in Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1989; 23:179-88.
103. DeLancastre H, de Jonge BLM, Matthews PR et al. Molecular aspects of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1994; 33:7-24.
104. Henze U, Sidow T, Wecke J et al. Influence of femB on methicillin resistance and peptidoglycan metabolism in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol. 1993; 175:1612-20.
105. Liu H, Buescher G, Lewis N et al. Detection of borderline oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and differentiation from methicillin-resistant strains. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1990; 9:717-24.
106. Patrick CC. Coagulase-negative staphylococci: pathogens with increasing clinical significance. J Pediatr. 1990; 116: 497-507.
107. Noel GJ, Edelson PJ. Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteremia in neonates: further observations and the occurrence of focal infection. Pediatrics. 1984; 74:832-7.
108. St. Geme JW III, Harris MC. Coagulase-negative staphylococcal infection in the neonate. Clin Perinatol. 1991; 18:281-301.
109. Smith AL. Antibiotic resistance in pediatric pathogens. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1992; 6:177-95.
110. Kaatz GW, Seo SM, Dorman NJ et al. Emergence of teicoplanin resistance during therapy of Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis. J Infect Dis. 1990; 162:103-8.
111. Schwalbe RS, Stapleton JT, Gilligan PH. Emergence of vancomycin resistance in coagulase-negative staphylococci. N Engl J Med. 1987; 316:927-31.
112. Ena J, Houston A, Wenzel RP et al. Trends in gram-positive bloodstream organism resistance: a seven-year audit of five glycopeptides and other drugs at a large university hospital. J Chemother. 1993; 5:17-21.
113. Veach LA, Pfaller MA, Barrett M et al. Vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus hemolyticus causing colonization and bloodstream infection. J Clin Microbiol. 1990; 28:2064-8.
114. Bannerman TL, Wadiak DL, Kloos WE. Susceptibility of Staphylococcus species and subspecies to teicoplanin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1991; 35:1919-22.
115. Hall RT, Hall SL, Barnes WG et al. Characteristics of coagulase-negative staphylococci from infants with bacteremia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1987; 6:377-83.
116. Morton TM, Johnston JL, Patterson J et al. Characterization of a conjugative staphylococcal mupirocin resistance plasmid. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995; 39:1272-80.
117. Shay DK, Goldmann DA, Jarvis WR. Reducing the spread of antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms: control of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1995; 42:703-15.
118. Noble WC, Virani Z, Cree RG. Co-transfer of vancomycin and other resistance genes from Enterococcus faecalis NCTC 12201 to Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1992; 72:195-8.
119. Malabarba A, Ciabatti R, Scotti R et al. MDL 63,246: a new semisynthetic glycopeptide antibiotic active against highly glycopeptide resistant enterococci. Paper presented at Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. New Orleans, LA; 1993 Oct.
120. Mobarakai N, Quale JM, Landman D. Bactericidal activity of peptide antibiotics against multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1994; 38:385-7.
121. Griswold MW, Lomaestro BM, Briceland LL. Quinupristin-dalfopristin (RP 59500): an injectable streptogramin combination. AJHP. 1996; 53:2045-53.
122. Turcotte A, Bergeron MG. Pharmacodynamic interaction between RP 59500 and gram-positive bacteria infecting fibrin clots. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1992; 36:2211-5.
123. Collins LA, Malanoski GJ, Eliopoulos GM et al. In vitro activity of RP59500, an injectable streptogramin antibiotic, against vancomycin-resistant gram-positive organisms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1993; 37:598-601.
124. Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Recommendations for preventing the spread of vancomycin resistance. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1995; 16:105-13.
125. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Nosocomial enterococci resistant to vancomycin-United States, 1989-1993. MMWR. 1993; 42:597-9.
126. Boyle JF, Soumakis SA, Rendo A et al. Epidemiologic analysis and genotypic characterization of a nosocomial outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. J Clin Microbiol. 1993; 31:1280-5.
127. Cercenado E, Garcia-Leoni ME, Vicente T et al. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci in a general hospital: a case-control study. Paper presented at Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. New Orleans, LA; 1993.
128. Handwerger S, Raucher B, Altarac D et al. Nosocomial outbreak due to Enterococcus faecium highly resistant to vancomycin, penicillin and gentamicin. Clin Infect Dis. 1993; 16:750-5.
129. Rubin LG, Tucci V, Cercenado E et al. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in hospitalized children. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1992; 13:700-5.
130. Vasquez A, Lutfey M, Tucci L et al. Clinical, microbiologic and epidemiologic evaluation of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Paper presented at Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. New Orleans, LA; 1993.
131. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Preventing the spread of vancomycin resistance: report from the Hospital Control Practices Advisory Committee. Fed Regist. 1994; 59:25758-63.