Fluid management for the prevention and attenuation of acute kidney injury

Nature Reviews Nephrology

Volumn 10, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 37-47

  Prowle, John R ^a   Kirwan, Christopher J ^a   Bellomo, Rinaldo ^b  

^a ROYAL LONDON HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DIURETIC AGENT;

ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; FLUID RESUSCITATION; FLUID THERAPY; HEART OUTPUT; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMAN; HYPERVOLEMIA; KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION; MAJOR SURGERY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY; REVIEW; SEPTIC SHOCK;

ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY; FLUID THERAPY; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMANS;

EID: 84890805500     PISSN: 17595061     EISSN: 1759507X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrneph.2013.232     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Venkatachalam, M. A. & Weinberg, J. M. The tubule pathology of septic acute kidney injury: a neglected area of research comes of age. Kidney Int. 81, 338-340 (2012).
2. Lipcsey, M. & Bellomo, R. Septic acute kidney injury: hemodynamic syndrome, inflammatory disorder, or both? Crit. Care 15, 1008 (2011).
3. Wang, Z. et al. Development of oxidative stress in the peritubular capillary microenvironment mediates sepsis-induced renal microcirculatory failure and acute kidney injury. Am. J. Pathol. 180, 505-516 (2012).
4. Jacobs, R. et al. Septic acute kidney injury: the culprit is inflammatory apoptosis rather than ischemic necrosis. Blood Purif. 32, 262-265 (2011).
5. Saotome, T., Ishikawa, K., May, C. N., Birchall, I. E. & Bellomo, R. The impact of experimental hypoperfusion on subsequent kidney function. Intensive Care Med. 36, 533-540 (2010).
6. Langenberg, C., Wan, L., Egi, M., May, C. N. & Bellomo, R. Renal blood flow in experimental septic acute renal failure. Kidney Int. 69, 1996-2002 (2006).
7. Prowle, J. R., Molan, M. P., Hornsey, E. & Bellomo, R. Measurement of renal blood flow by phase-contrast magnetic resonance imaging during septic acute kidney injury: a pilot investigation. Crit. Care Med. 40, 1768-1776 (2012).
8. Alejandro, V. et al. Mechanisms of filtration failure during postischemic injury of the human kidney. A study of the reperfused renal allograft. J. Clin. Invest. 95, 820-831 (1995).
9. LeDoux, D., Astiz, M. E., Carpati, C. M. & Rackow, E. C. Effects of perfusion pressure on tissue perfusion in septic shock. Crit. Care Med. 28, 2729-2732 (2000).
10. Marik, P. E., Baram, M. & Vahid, B. Does central venous pressure predict fluid responsiveness? A systematic review of the literature and the tale of seven mares. Chest 134, 172-178 (2008).
11. Michard, F. & Teboul, J. L. Predicting fluid responsiveness in ICU patients: a critical analysis of the evidence. Chest 121, 2000-2008 (2002).
12. Bouhemad, B. Isolated and reversible impairment of ventricular relaxation in patients with septic shock. Crit. Care Med. 36, 766-774 (2008).
13. Bouhemad, B. Acute left ventricular dilatation and shock-induced myocardial dysfunction. Crit. Care Med. 37, 441-447 (2009).
14. Rudiger, A. & Singer, M. Mechanisms of sepsis-induced cardiac dysfunction. Crit. Care Med. 35, 1599-1608 (2007).
15. Di Giantomasso, D., May, C. N. & Bellomo, R. Vital organ blood flow during hyperdynamic sepsis. Chest 124, 1053-1059 (2003).
16. Ruokonen, E. Regional blood flow and oxygen transport in septic shock. Crit. Care Med. 21, 1296-1303 (1993).
17. Fleck, A. Increased vascular permeability: a major cause of hypoalbuminaemia in disease and injury. Lancet 325, 781-784 (1985).
18. Marik, P. E. & Cavallazzi, R. Does the central venous pressure predict fluid responsiveness? An updated meta-analysis and a plea for some common sense. Crit. Care Med. 41, 1774-1781 (2013).
19. Jones, A. E. Point: should lactate clearance be substituted for central venous oxygen saturation as goals of early severe sepsis and septic shock therapy? Yes. Chest 140, 1406-1408 (2011).
20. Nguyen, H. B. et al. Outcome effectiveness of the severe sepsis resuscitation bundle with addition of lactate clearance as a bundle item: a multi-national evaluation. Crit. Care 15, R229 (2011).
21. Marik, P. E., Bellomo, R. & Demla, V. Lactate clearance as a target of therapy in sepsis: a flawed paradigm. OA Critical Care 1, 3 (2013).
22. Wan, L., Bellomo, R. & May, C. N. A comparison of 4% succinylated gelatin solution versus normal saline in stable normovolaemic sheep: global haemodynamic, regional blood flow and oxygen delivery effects. Anaesth. Intensive Care 35, 924-931 (2007).
23. Legrand, M. et al. Fluid resuscitation does not improve renal oxygenation during hemorrhagic shock in rats. Anesthesiology 112, 119-127 (2010).
24. Wan, L., Bellomo, R. & May, C. N. The effect of normal saline resuscitation on vital organ blood flow in septic sheep. Intensive Care Med. 32, 1238-1242 (2006).
25. Cecconi, M. et al. Clinical review: goal-directed therapy-what is the evidence in surgical patients? The effect on different risk groups. Crit. Care 17, 209 (2013).
26. Dalfino, L., Giglio, M. T., Puntillo, F., Marucci, M. & Brienza, N. Haemodynamic goal-directed therapy and postoperative infections: earlier is better. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit. Care 15, R154 (2011).
27. Giglio, M. T., Marucci, M., Testini, M. & Brienza, N. Goal-directed haemodynamic therapy and gastrointestinal complications in major surgery: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Br. J. Anaesth. 103, 637-646 (2009).
28. Rahbari, N. N. et al. Meta-analysis of standard, restrictive and supplemental fluid administration in colorectal surgery. Br. J. Surg. 96, 331-341 (2009).
29. Brienza, N., Giglio, M. T., Marucci, M. & Fiore, T. Does perioperative hemodynamic optimization protect renal function in surgical patients? A meta-analytic study. Crit. Care Med. 37, 2079-2090 (2009).
30. Rivers, E. et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N. Engl. J. Med. 345, 1368-1377 (2001).
31. de Oliveira, C. F. et al. ACCM/PALS haemodynamic support guidelines for paediatric septic shock: an outcomes comparison with and without monitoring central venous oxygen saturation. Intensive Care Med. 34, 1065-1075 (2008).
32. Lin, S. M. et al. A modified goal-directed protocol improves clinical outcomes in intensive care unit patients with septic shock: a randomized controlled trial. Shock 26, 551-557 (2006).
33. Pearse, R. M., Belsey, J. D., Cole, J. N. & Bennett, E. D. Effect of dopexamine infusion on mortality following major surgery: individual patient data meta-regression analysis of published clinical trials. Crit. Care Med. 36, 1323-1329 (2008).
34. Hamilton, M. A., Cecconi, M. & Rhodes, A. A systematic review and meta-analysis on the use of preemptive hemodynamic intervention to improve postoperative outcomes in moderate and high-risk surgical patients. Anesth. Analg. 112, 1392-1402 (2011).
35. Gattinoni, L. et al. A trial of goal-oriented hemodynamic therapy in critically ill patients. SvO2 Collaborative Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 333, 1025-1032 (1995).
36. Hayes, M. A. et al. Elevation of systemic oxygen delivery in the treatment of critically ill patients. N. Engl. J. Med. 330, 1717-1722 (1994).
37. Prowle, J. R., Chua, H. R., Bagshaw, S. M. & Bellomo, R. Clinical review: volume of fluid resuscitation and the incidence of acute kidney injury- A systematic review. Crit. Care 16, 230 (2012).
38. Firth, J. D., Raine, A. E. & Ledingham, J. G. Raised venous pressure: a direct cause of renal sodium retention in oedema? Lancet 331, 1033-1035 (1988).
39. Mohmand, H. & Goldfarb, S. Renal dysfunction associated with intra-abdominal hypertension and the abdominal compartment syndrome. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 22, 615-621 (2011).
40. Wauters, J. et al. Pathophysiology of renal hemodynamics and renal cortical microcirculation in a porcine model of elevated intra-abdominal pressure. J. Trauma 66, 713-719 (2009).
41. Dalfino, L., Tullo, L., Donadio, I., Malcangi, V. & Brienza, N. Intra-abdominal hypertension and acute renal failure in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 34, 707-713 (2008).
42. Vidal, M. G. et al. Incidence and clinical effects of intra-abdominal hypertension in critically ill patients. Crit. Care Med. 36, 1823-1831 (2008).
43. Malbrain, M. L. Incidence and prognosis of intraabdominal hypertension in a mixed population of critically ill patients: a multiple-center epidemiological study. Crit. Care Med. 33, 315-322 (2005).
44. Damman, K. et al. Increased central venous pressure is associated with impaired renal function and mortality in a broad spectrum of patients with cardiovascular disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 53, 582-588 (2009).
45. Mullens, W. et al. Importance of venous congestion for worsening of renal function in advanced decompensated heart failure. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 53, 589-596 (2009).
46. Doty, J. M. et al. Effect of increased renal venous pressure on renal function. J. Trauma 47, 1000-1003 (1999).
47. Li, X. et al. Acute renal venous obstruction is more detrimental to the kidney than arterial occlusion: implication for murine models of acute kidney injury. Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 302, F519-F525 (2012).
48. Herrler, T. et al. The intrinsic renal compartment syndrome: new perspectives in kidney transplantation. Transplantation 89, 40-46 (2010).
49. Chowdhury, A. H., Cox, E. F., Francis, S. T. & Lobo, D. N. A randomized, controlled, double-blind crossover study on the effects of 2-L infusions of 0.9% saline and Plasma-Lyte® 148 on renal blood flow velocity and renal cortical tissue perfusion in healthy volunteers. Ann. Surg. 256, 18-24 (2012).
50. Payen, D. et al. A positive fluid balance is associated with a worse outcome in patients with acute renal failure. Crit. Care 12, R74 (2008).
51. Bouchard, J. et al. Fluid accumulation, survival and recovery of kidney function in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. Kidney Int. 76, 422-427 (2009).
52. Teixeira, C. et al. Fluid balance and urine volume are independent predictors of mortality in acute kidney injury. Crit. Care 17, R14 (2013).
53. Basu, R. K. et al. Acute kidney injury based on corrected serum creatinine is associated with increased morbidity in children following the arterial switch operation. Pediatr. Crit. Care Med. 14, e218-e224 (2013).
54. Fülöp, T. et al. Volume-related weight gain and subsequent mortality in acute renal failure patients treated with continuous renal replacement therapy. ASAIO J. 56, 333-337 (2010).
55. Grams, M. E. et al. Fluid balance, diuretic use, and mortality in acute kidney injury. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 6, 966-973 (2011).
56. Sutherland, S. M. et al. Fluid overload and mortality in children receiving continuous renal replacement therapy: the prospective pediatric continuous renal replacement therapy registry. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 55, 316-325 (2010).
57. Vaara, S. T. et al. Fluid overload is associated with an increased risk for 90-day mortality in critically ill patients with renal replacement therapy: data from the prospective FINNAKI study. Crit. Care 16, R197 (2012).
58. Dass, B. et al. Fluid balance as an early indicator of acute kidney injury in CV surgery. Clin. Nephrol. 77, 438-444 (2012).
59. Kambhampati, G. et al. Perioperative fluid balance and acute kidney injury. Clin. Exp. Nephrol. 16, 730-738 (2012).
60. Goldstein, S. L. et al. Pediatric patients with multi-organ dysfunction syndrome receiving continuous renal replacement therapy. Kidney Int. 67, 653-658 (2005).
61. Heung, M. et al. Fluid overload at initiation of renal replacement therapy is associated with lack of renal recovery in patients with acute kidney injury. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 27, 956-961 (2012).
62. Bellomo, R. et al. An observational study fluid balance and patient outcomes in the Randomized Evaluation of Normal vs. Augmented Level of Replacement Therapy trial. Crit. Care Med. 40, 1753-1760 (2012).
63. Prowle, J. R., Echeverri, J. E., Ligabo, E. V., Ronco, C. & Bellomo, R. Fluid balance and acute kidney injury. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 6, 107-115 (2010).
64. Wiedemann, H. P. et al. Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N. Engl. J. Med. 354, 2564-2575 (2006).
65. Liu, K. D. et al. Acute kidney injury in patients with acute lung injury: impact of fluid accumulation on classification of acute kidney injury and associated outcomes. Crit. Care Med. 39, 2665-2671 (2011).
66. Myburgh, J. A. & Mythen, M. G. Resuscitation fluids. N. Engl. J. Med. 369, 1243-1251 (2013).
67. Jungheinrich, C. & Neff, T. A. Pharmacokinetics of hydroxyethyl starch. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 44, 681-699 (2005).
68. Berson, S. A., Yalow, R. S., Schrieber, S. S. & Post, J. Tracer experiments with I131 labelled human serum albumin: distribution and degradation studies. J. Clin. Invest. 32, 746-768 (1953).
69. Finfer, S. et al. A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N. Engl. J. Med. 350, 2247-2256 (2004).
70. Myburgh, J. A. et al. Hydroxyethyl starch or saline for fluid resuscitation in intensive care. N. Engl. J. Med. 367, 1901-1911 (2012).
71. Perner, A. et al. Hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.42 versus Ringer's acetate in severe sepsis. N. Engl. J. Med. 367, 124-134 (2012).
72. Guidet, B. et al. Assessment of hemodynamic efficacy and safety of 6% hydroxyethylstarch 130/0.4 vs. 0.9% NaCl fluid replacement in patients with severe sepsis: the CRYSTMAS study. Crit. Care 16, R94 (2012).
73. Bayer, O. et al. Effects of fluid resuscitation with synthetic colloids or crystalloids alone on shock reversal, fluid balance, and patient outcomes in patients with severe sepsis: a prospective sequential analysis. Crit. Care Med. 40, 2543-2551 (2012).
74. Haase, N. et al. Hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.38-045 versus crystalloid or albumin in patients with sepsis: systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. BMJ 346, f839 (2013).
75. Zarychanski, R. et al. Association of hydroxyethyl starch administration with mortality and acute kidney injury in critically ill patients requiring volume resuscitation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 309, 678-688 (2013).
76. Perel, P., Roberts, I. & Ker, K. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 2, Art. No.: CD000567. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858. CD000567.pub6.
77. Saw, M. M., Chandler, B. & Ho, K. M. Benefits and risks of using gelatin solution as a plasma expander for perioperative and critically ill patients: a meta-analysis. Anaesth. Intensive Care 40, 17-32 (2012).
78. Thomas-Rueddel, D. O. et al. Safety of gelatin for volume resuscitation- A systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 38, 1134-1142 (2012).
79. Yunos, N. M., Bellomo, R., Story, D. & Kellum, J. Bench-to-bedside review: chloride in critical illness. Crit. Care 14, 226 (2010).
80. Reid, F., Lobo, D. N., Williams, R. N., Rowlands, B. J. & Allison, S. P. (Ab)normal saline and physiological Hartmann's solution: a randomized double-blind crossover study. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 104, 17-24 (2003).
81. Shaw, A. D. et al. Major complications, mortality, and resource utilization after open abdominal surgery: 0.9% saline compared to Plasma-Lyte. Ann. Surg. 255, 821-829 (2012).
82. Bullivant, E. M., Wilcox, C. S. & Welch, W. J. Intrarenal vasoconstriction during hyperchloremia: role of thromboxane. Am. J. Physiol. 256, F152-F157 (1989).
83. Yunos, N. M. et al. The biochemical effects of restricting chloride-rich fluids in intensive care. Crit. Care Med. 39, 2419-2424 (2011).
84. Yunos, N. M. et al. Association between a chloride-liberal vs chloride-restrictive intravenous fluid administration strategy and kidney injury in critically ill adults. JAMA 308, 1566-1572 (2012).
85. Bellomo, R., Kellum, J. A., Wisniewski, S. R. & Pinsky, M. R. Effects of norepinephrine on the renal vasculature in normal and endotoxemic dogs. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 159, 1186-1192 (1999).
86. Anderson, W. P., Korner, P. I. & Selig, S. E. Mechanisms involved in the renal responses to intravenous and renal artery infusions of noradrenaline in conscious dogs. J. Physiol. 321, 21-30 (1981).
87. Martin, C., Papazian, L., Perrin, G., Saux, P. & Gouin, F. Norepinephrine or dopamine for the treatment of hyperdynamic septic shock? Chest 103, 1826-1831 (1993).
88. Redfors, B., Bragadottir, G., Sellgren, J., Sward, K. & Ricksten, S. E. Effects of norepinephrine on renal perfusion, filtration and oxygenation in vasodilatory shock and acute kidney injury. Intensive Care Med. 37, 60-67 (2011).
89. Badin, J. et al. Relation between mean arterial pressure and renal function in the early phase of shock: a prospective, explorative cohort study. Crit. Care 15, R135 (2011).
90. Liu, Y. L., Prowle, J., Licari, E., Uchino, S. & Bellomo, R. Changes in blood pressure before the development of nosocomial acute kidney injury. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 24, 504-511 (2009).
91. Schmid, S. & Jungwirth, B. Anaesthesia for renal transplant surgery: an update. Eur. J. Anaesthesiol. 29, 552-558 (2012).
92. Siedlecki, A., Irish, W. & Brennan, D. C. Delayed graft function in the kidney transplant. Am. J. Transplant. 11, 2279-2296 (2011).
93. Othman, M. M., Ismael, A. Z. & Hammouda, G. E. The impact of timing of maximal crystalloid hydration on early graft function during kidney transplantation. Anesth. Analg. 110, 1440-1446 (2010).
94. Campos, L. et al. Do intraoperative hemodynamic factors of the recipient influence renal graft function? Transplant. Proc. 44, 1800-1803 (2012).
95. De Gasperi, A. et al. Perioperative fluid management in kidney transplantation: is volume overload still mandatory for graft function? Transplant. Proc. 38, 807-809 (2006).
96. Gingell-Littlejohn, M. et al. Below-target postoperative arterial blood pressure but not central venous pressure is associated with delayed graft function. Transplant. Proc. 45, 46-50 (2013).
97. Shannon, J. L. et al. Studies on the innervation of human renal allografts. J. Pathol. 186, 109-115 (1998).
98. Morita, K. et al. Changes in renal blood flow in response to sympathomimetics in the rat transplanted and denervated kidney. Int. J. Urol. 6, 24-32 (1999).
99. Hansen, J. M. et al. The transplanted human kidney does not achieve functional reinnervation. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 87, 13-20 (1994).
100. Dal Canton, A. et al. Mechanism of increased plasma urea after diuretic therapy in uraemic patients. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 68, 255-261 (1985).
101. Karajala, V., Mansour, W. & Kellum, J. A. Diuretics in acute kidney injury. Minerva Anestesiol. 75, 251-257 (2009).
102. van der Voort, P. H. Furosemide does not improve renal recovery after hemofiltration for acute renal failure in critically ill patients: a double blind randomized controlled trial. Crit. Care Med. 37, 533-538 (2009).
103. Bouchard, J. & Mehta, R. L. Volume management in continuous renal replacement therapy. Semin. Dial. 22, 146-150 (2009).
104. Conger, J. D. Does hemodialysis delay recovery from acute renal failure? Semin. Dial. 3, 146-148 (1990).
105. Manns, M., Sigler, M. H. & Teehan, B. P. Intradialytic renal haemodynamics-potential consequences for the management of the patient with acute renal failure. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 12, 870-872 (1997).
106. Schneider, A. G. et al. Choice of renal replacement therapy modality and dialysis dependence after acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 39, 987-997 (2013).
107. Prowle, J. R. & Bellomo, R. Continuous renal replacement therapy: recent advances and future research. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 6, 521-529 (2010).
108. Schwenger, V. et al. Sustained low efficiency dialysis using a single-pass batch system in acute kidney injury- A randomized interventional trial: the REnal Replacement Therapy Study in Intensive Care Unit PatiEnts. Crit. Care 16, R140 (2012).
109. Marshall, M. R. et al. Mortality rate comparison after switching from continuous to prolonged intermittent renal replacement for acute kidney injury in three intensive care units from different countries. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 26, 2169-2175 (2011).
110. VA/NIH Acute Renal Failure Trail Network. Intensity of renal support in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. N. Engl. J. Med. 359, 7-20 (2008).
111. RENAL Replacement Therapy Study Investigators. Intensity of continuous renal-replacement therapy in critically ill patients. N. Engl. J. Med. 361, 1627-1638 (2009).
112. Chawla, L. S. & Kimmel, P. L. Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease: an integrated clinical syndrome. Kidney Int. 82, 516-524 (2012).
113. Clark, W. R., Mueller, B. A., Kraus, M. A. & Macias, W. L. Quantification of creatinine kinetic parameters in patients with acute renal failure. Kidney Int. 54, 554-560 (1998).
114. Doi, K., Suzuki, Y., Nakao, A., Fujita, T. & Noiri, E. Radical scavenger edaravone developed for clinical use ameliorates ischemia/reperfusion injury in rat kidney. Kidney Int. 65, 1714-1723 (2004).
115. Wilson, F. P., Sheehan, J. M., Mariani, L. H. & Berns, J. S. Creatinine generation is reduced in patients requiring continuous venovenous hemodialysis and independently predicts mortality. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 27, 4088-4094 (2012).
116. Chawla, L. S. & Kellum, J. A. Acute kidney injury in 2011: biomarkers are transforming our understanding of AKI. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 8, 68-70 (2012).
117. Srisawat, N. et al. Plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin predicts recovery from acute kidney injury following community-acquired pneumonia. Kidney Int. 80, 545-552 (2011).
118. Srisawat, N. et al. Urinary biomarkers and renal recovery in critically ill patients with renal support. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 6, 1815-1823 (2011).
119. Dasselaar, J. J., van der Sande, F. M. & Franssen, C. F. Critical evaluation of blood volume measurements during hemodialysis. Blood Purif. 33, 177-182 (2012).
120. Tonelli, M. et al. Blood volume monitoring in intermittent hemodialysis for acute renal failure. Kidney Int. 62, 1075-1080 (2002).
121. Wabel, P., Chamney, P., Moissl, U. & Jirka, T. Importance of whole-body bioimpedance spectroscopy for the management of fluid balance. Blood Purif. 27, 75-80 (2009).
122. Hur, E. et al. Effect of fluid management guided by bioimpedance spectroscopy on cardiovascular parameters in hemodialysis patients: a randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 61, 957-965 (2013).
123. Savalle, M. et al. Assessment of body cell mass at bedside in critically ill patients. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 303, E389-E396 (2012).
124. Koziolek, M. J. et al. Bioimpedance analysis and intradialytic hypotension in intermittent hemodialysis. Clin. Nephrol. 66, 39-50 (2006).
125. Goldstein, S. L. & Chawla, L. S. Renal angina. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 5, 943-949 (2010).
126. US National Library of Medicine. ClinicalTrials.gov [online], http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00975793 (2012).
127. ISRCTN Register. A multicentre, randomised controlled trial of the clinical and cost-effectiveness of early, goal-directed, protocolised resuscitation for emerging septic shock (ProMISe) [online], http://www. controlled-trials.com/ISRCTN36307479 (2013).
128. US National Library of Medicine. ClinicalTrials.gov [online], http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00510835 (2013).
129. ISRCTN Register. Optimisation of peri-operative cardiovascular management to improve surgical outcome (OPTIMISE) [online], http://www.controlled-trials. com/ISRCTN04386758/pearse (2013).
130. Askenazi, D. J. et al. Fluid overload and mortality are associated with acute kidney injury in sick near-term/term neonate. Pediatr. Nephrol. 28, 661-666 (2013).
131. Hazle, M. A., Gajarski, R. J., Yu, S., Donohue, J. & Blatt, N. B. Fluid overload in infants following congenital heart surgery. Pediatr. Crit. Care Med. 14, 44-49 (2013).
132. Selewski, D. T. et al. Fluid overload and fluid removal in pediatric patients on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation requiring continuous renal replacement therapy. Crit. Care Med. 40, 2694-2699 (2012).
133. Selewski, D. T. et al. Weight-based determination of fluid overload status and mortality in pediatric intensive care unit patients requiring continuous renal replacement therapy. Intensive Care Med. 37, 1166-1173 (2011).
134. Zoccali, C. et al. Pulmonary congestion predicts cardiac events and mortality in ESRD. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 24, 639-646 (2013).