Autoimmune hepatitis

The Lancet

Volumn 382, Issue 9902, 2013, Pages 1433-1444

  Heneghan, Michael A ^a   Yeoman, Andrew D ^a   Verma, Sumita ^b   Smith, Alastair D ^c   Longhi, Maria Serena ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE HOSPITAL NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

^b BRIGHTON AND SUSSEX MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United Kingdom)

^c DUKE UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALANINE AMINOTRANSFERASE; ANTINUCLEAR ANTIBODY; ASIALOGLYCOPROTEIN RECEPTOR; ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE; AZATHIOPRINE; BUDESONIDE; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYCLOSPORIN A; CYTOTOXIC T LYMPHOCYTE ANTIGEN 4; DEFLAZACORT; DICLOFENAC; ETANERCEPT; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; MELATONIN; METHOTREXATE; MINOCYCLINE; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID 2 MORPHOLINOETHYL ESTER; NEUTROPHIL CYTOPLASMIC ANTIBODY; NITROFURANTOIN; ORNIDAZOLE; PEMOLINE; PROPYLTHIOURACIL; RAPAMYCIN; RITUXIMAB; SMOOTH MUSCLE ANTIBODY; STEROID; TACROLIMUS; TIENILIC ACID; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA; URSODEOXYCHOLIC ACID;

ACUTE LIVER FAILURE; ADOPTIVE TRANSFER; AFRICAN AMERICAN; AGE DISTRIBUTION; ALANINE AMINOTRANSFERASE BLOOD LEVEL; AMINO ACID SEQUENCE; ASIAN; ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE BLOOD LEVEL; AUTOIMMUNE HEPATITIS; AUTOIMMUNE POLYENDOCRINOPATHY CANDIDIASIS ECTODERMAL DYSTROPHY; CD4+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CONFERENCE PAPER; DISEASE ACTIVITY; DNA IMMUNIZATION; EFFECTOR CELL; END STAGE LIVER DISEASE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; HAPLOTYPE; HEPATITIS C; HLA SYSTEM; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOLOGICAL TOLERANCE; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INCIDENCE; LIVER BIOPSY; LIVER CELL CARCINOMA; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; LIVER PARENCHYMA; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; MACROPHAGE; MAINTENANCE THERAPY; MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX; MICROSATELLITE MARKER; MONOCYTE; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHENOTYPE; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; PRIMARY BILIARY CIRRHOSIS; PRIMARY SCLEROSING CHOLANGITIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REGULATORY T LYMPHOCYTE; RELAPSE; REMISSION; STEROID THERAPY; VIRUS HEPATITIS;

EID: 84886261487     PISSN: 01406736     EISSN: 1474547X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62163-1     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (174)

1. Waldenstrom J. Leber, Blutproteine und Nahrungseiweib. Dtsch Z Verdau Stoff wechselkr 1950; 15: 113-19 (in German).
2. Johnson PJ, McFarlane IG. Meeting report: International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group. Hepatology 1993; 18: 998-1005.
3. Alvarez F, Berg PA, Bianchi FB, et al. International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group Report: review of criteria for diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 1999; 31: 929-38.
4. Boberg KM, Aadland E, Jahnsen J, Raknerud N, Stiris M, Bell H. Incidence and prevalence of primary biliary cirrhosis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, and autoimmune hepatitis in a Norwegian population. Scand J Gastroenterol 1998; 33: 99-103.
5. Primo J, Maroto N, Martinez M, et al. Incidence of adult form of autoimmune hepatitis in Valencia (Spain). Acta Gastroenterol Belg 2009; 72: 402-06.
6. Hurlburt KJ, McMahon BJ, Deubner H, Hsu-Trawinski B, Williams JL, Kowdley KV. Prevalence of autoimmune liver disease in Alaska Natives. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: 2402-07.
7. McFarlane IG. Autoimmune hepatitis: diagnostic criteria, subclassifications, and clinical features. Clin Liver Dis 2002; 6: 605-21.
8. Schramm C, Kanzler S, zum Buschenfelde KH, Galle PR, Lohse AW. Autoimmune hepatitis in the elderly. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 1587-91.
9. Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA. Distinctive clinical phenotype and treatment outcome of type 1 autoimmune hepatitis in the elderly. Hepatology 2006; 43: 532-38.
10. Al-Chalabi T, Boccato S, Portmann BC, McFarlane IG, Heneghan MA. Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) in the elderly: a systematic retrospective analysis of a large group of consecutive patients with definite AIH followed at a tertiary referral centre. J Hepatol 2006; 45: 575-83.
11. Gregorio GV, Portmann B, Reid F, et al. Autoimmune hepatitis in childhood: a 20-year experience. Hepatology 1997; 25: 541-47.
12. Czaja AJ, Donaldson PT. Gender effects and synergisms with histocompatibility leukocyte antigens in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: 2051-57.
13. Al-Chalabi T, Underhill JA, Portmann BC, McFarlane IG, Heneghan MA. Impact of gender on the long-term outcome and survival of patients with autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2008; 48: 140-47.
14. Lim KN, Casanova RL, Boyer TD, Bruno CJ. Autoimmune hepatitis in African Americans: presenting features and response to therapy. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 3390-94.
15. Verma S, Torbenson M, Thuluvath PJ. The impact of ethnicity on the natural history of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 2007; 46: 1828-35.
16. Zolfino T, Heneghan MA, Norris S, Harrison PM, Portmann BC, McFarlane IG. Characteristics of autoimmune hepatitis in patients who are not of European Caucasoid ethnic origin. Gut 2002; 50: 713-17.
17. Czaja AJ, Souto EO, Bittencourt PL, et al. Clinical distinctions and pathogenic implications of type 1 autoimmune hepatitis in Brazil and the United States. J Hepatol 2002; 37: 302-08.
18. Seki T, Ota M, Furuta S, et al. HLA class II molecules and autoimmune hepatitis susceptibility in Japanese patients. Gastroenterology 1992; 103: 1041-47.
19. Nakamura K, Yoneda M, Yokohama S, et al. Efficacy of ursodeoxycholic acid in Japanese patients with type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1998; 13: 490-95.
20. Fainboim L, Marcos Y, Pando M, et al. Chronic active autoimmune hepatitis in children: strong association with a particular HLA-DR6 (DRB1, 1301) haplotype. Hum Immunol 1994; 41: 146-50.
21. Fainboim L, Canero Velasco MC, Marcos CY, et al. Protracted, but not acute, hepatitis A virus infection is strongly associated with HLA-DRB, 1301, a marker for pediatric autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 2001; 33: 1512-17.
22. Duchini A, McHutchison JG, Pockros PJ. LKM-positive autoimmune hepatitis in the western United States: a case series. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95: 3238-41.
23. Cookson S, Constantini PK, Clare M, et al. Frequency and nature of cytokine gene polymorphisms in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 1999; 30: 851-56.
24. Czaja AJ, Cookson S, Constantini PK, Clare M, Underhill JA, Donaldson PT. Cytokine polymorphisms associated with clinical features and treatment outcome in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology 1999; 117: 645-52.
25. Agarwal K, Czaja AJ, Jones DE, Donaldson PT. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) gene polymorphisms and susceptibility to type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 2000; 31: 49-53.
26. Longhi MS, Ma Y, Bogdanos DP, Cheeseman P, Mieli-Vergani G, Vergani D. Impairment of CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T-cells in autoimmune liver disease. J Hepatol 2004; 41: 31-37.
27. Longhi MS, Ma Y, Mitry RR, et al. Effect of CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T-cells on CD8 T-cell function in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. J Autoimmun 2005; 25: 63-71.
28. Longhi MS, Hussain MJ, Kwok WW, Mieli-Vergani G, Ma Y, Vergani D. Autoantigen-specific regulatory T cells, a potential tool for immune-tolerance reconstitution in type-2 autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 2011; 53: 536-47.
29. Longhi MS, Mitry RR, Samyn M, et al. Vigorous activation of monocytes in juvenile autoimmune liver disease escapes the control of regulatory T-cells. Hepatology 2009; 50: 130-42.
30. Korn TBE, Oukka M, Kuchroo VK. IL-17 and Th17 Cells. Annu Rev Immunol 2009; 27: 485-517.
31. Ferri S, Longhi MS, De Molo C, et al. A multifaceted imbalance of T cells with regulatory function characterizes type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 2010; 52: 999-1007.
32. Lobo-Yeo A, Senaldi G, Portmann B, Mowat AP, Mieli-Vergani G, Vergani D. Class I and class II major histocompatibility complex antigen expression on hepatocytes: a study in children with liver disease. Hepatology 1990; 12: 224-32.
33. Watanabe Y, Kawakami H, Kawamoto H, et al. Effect of neonatal thymectomy on experimental autoimmune hepatitis in mice. Clin Exp Immunol 1987; 67: 105-13.
34. Tiegs G, Hentschel J, Wendel A. A T cell-dependent experimental liver injury in mice inducible by concanavalin A. J Clin Invest 1992; 90: 196-203.
35. Yamauchi K, Yamaguchi N, Furukawa R, et al. A murine model of acute liver injury induced by human monoclonal antibody. Hepatology 2005; 40: 687-92.
36. Lohse AW, Dienes HP, Meyer zum Buschenfelde KH. Suppression of murine experimental autoimmune hepatitis by T-cell vaccination or immunosuppression. Hepatology 1998; 27: 1536-43.
37. Gorham JD, Lin JT, Sung JL, Rudner LA, French MA. Genetic regulation of autoimmune disease: BALB/c background TGF-beta 1-deficient mice develop necroinflammatory IFN-gamma-dependent hepatitis. J Immunol 2001; 166: 6413-22.
38. Kido M, Watanabe N, Okazaki T, et al. Fatal autoimmune hepatitis induced by concurrent loss of naturally arising regulatory T cells and PD-1-mediated signaling. Gastroenterology 2008; 135: 1333-43.
39. Lapierre P, Djilali-Saiah I, Vitozzi S, Alvarez F. A murine model of type 2 autoimmune hepatitis: xenoimmunization with human antigens. Hepatology 2004; 39: 1066-74.
40. Holdener M, Hintermann E, Bayer M, et al. Breaking tolerance to the natural human liver autoantigen cytochrome P450 2D6 by virus infection. J Exp Med 2008; 205: 1409-22.
41. Vergani D, Alvarez F, Bianchi FB, et al. Liver autoimmune serology: a consensus statement from the committee for autoimmune serology of the International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group. J Hepatol 2004; 41: 677-83.
42. Kanzler S, Weidemann C, Gerken G, et al. Clinical significance of autoantibodies to soluble liver antigen in autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 1999; 31: 635-40.
43. Manns M, Kyriatsoulis A, Gerken G, Staritz M, Meyer zum Buschenfelde KH. Characterisation of a new subgroup of autoimmune chronic active hepatitis by autoantibodies against a soluble liver antigen. Lancet 1987; 329: 292-94.
44. Wies I, Brunner S, Henninger J, et al. Identification of target antigen for SLA/LP autoantibodies in autoimmune hepatitis. Lancet 2000; 355: 1510-15.
45. Ballot E, Homberg JC, Johanet C. Antibodies to soluble liver antigen: an additional marker in type 1 auto-immune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2000; 33: 208-15.
46. Wen L, Peakman M, Lobo-Yeo A, et al. T-cell-directed hepatocyte damage in autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Lancet 1990; 336: 1527-30.
47. Treichel U, McFarlane BM, Seki T, et al. Demographics of anti-asialoglycoprotein receptor autoantibodies in autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology 1994; 107: 799-804.
48. Ma Y, Okamoto M, Thomas MG, et al. Antibodies to conformational epitopes of soluble liver antigen define a severe form of autoimmune liver disease. Hepatology 2002; 35: 658-64.
49. Manns MP, Johnson EF, Griffin KJ, Tan EM, Sullivan KF. Major antigen of liver kidney microsomal autoantibodies in idiopathic autoimmune hepatitis is cytochrome P450db1. J Clin Invest 1989; 83: 1066-72.
50. Gueguen M, Meunier-Rotival M, Bernard O, Alvarez F. Anti-liver kidney microsome antibody recognizes a cytochrome P450 from the IID subfamily. J Exp Med 1988; 168: 801-06.
51. Zanger UM, Hauri HP, Loeper J, Homberg JC, Meyer UA. Antibodies against human cytochrome P-450db1 in autoimmune hepatitis type II. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988; 85: 8256-60.
52. Homberg JC, Abuaf N, Bernard O, et al. Chronic active hepatitis associated with antiliver/kidney microsome antibody type 1: a second type of "autoimmune" hepatitis. Hepatology 1987; 7: 1333-39.
53. Manns MP, Griffin KJ, Sullivan KF, Johnson EF. LKM-1 autoantibodies recognize a short linear sequence in P450IID6, a cytochrome P-450 monooxygenase. J Clin Invest 1991; 88: 1370-78.
54. Dalekos GN, Wedemeyer H, Obermayer-Straub P, et al. Epitope mapping of cytochrome P4502D6 autoantigen in patients with chronic hepatitis C during alpha-interferon treatment. J Hepatol 1999; 30: 366-75.
55. Kerkar N, Choudhuri K, Ma Y, et al. Cytochrome P4502D6(193-212): a new immunodominant epitope and target of virus/self cross-reactivity in liver kidney microsomal autoantibody type 1-positive liver disease. J Immunol 2003; 170: 1481-89.
56. Donaldson PT. Genetics of liver disease: immunogenetics and disease pathogenesis. Gut 2004; 53: 599-608.
57. Yoshizawa K, Ota M, Katsuyama Y, et al. Genetic analysis of the HLA region of Japanese patients with type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2005; 42: 578-84.
58. Doherty DG, Donaldson PT, Underhill JA, et al. Allelic sequence variation in the HLA class II genes and proteins in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 1994; 19: 609-15.
59. Vogel A, Strassburg CP, Manns MP. Genetic association of vitamin D receptor polymorphisms with primary biliary cirrhosis and autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 2002; 35: 126-31.
60. Bittencourt PL, Palacios SA, Cancado EL, et al. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 gene polymorphisms do not confer susceptibility to autoimmune hepatitis types 1 and 2 in Brazil. Am J Gastroenterol 2003; 98: 1616-20.
61. Yokosawa S, Yoshizawa K, Ota M, et al. A genomewide DNA microsatellite association study of Japanese patients with autoimmune hepatitis type 1. Hepatology 2007; 45: 384-90.
62. Bittencourt PL, Goldberg AC, Cancado EL, et al. Genetic heterogeneity in susceptibility to autoimmune hepatitis types 1 and 2. Am J Gastroenterol 1999; 94: 1906-13.
63. Djilali-Saiah I, Fakhfakh A, Louafi H, Caillat-Zucman S, Debray D, Alvarez F. HLA class II influences humoral autoimmunity in patients with type 2 autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2006; 45: 844-50.
64. Vento S, Garofano T, Dolci L, Di Perri G, Concia E, Bassetti D. Identification of hepatitis A virus as a trigger for autoimmune chronic hepatitis type 1 in susceptible individuals. Lancet 1991; 337: 1183-87.
65. Hilzenrat N, Zilberman D, Klein T, Zur B, Sikuler E. Autoimmune hepatitis in a genetically susceptible patient: is it triggered by acute viral hepatitis A? Dig Dis Sci 1999; 44: 1950-52.
66. Grunhage F, Spengler U, Fischer HP, Sauerbruch T. Autoimmune hepatitis-sequel of a relapsing hepatitis A in a 75-year-old woman. Digestion 2004; 70: 187-91.
67. Vento S, Cainelli F, Renzini C, Concia E. Autoimmune hepatitis type 2 induced by HCV and persisting after viral clearance. Lancet 1997; 350: 1298-99.
68. Vento S, Cainelli F. Is there a role for viruses in triggering autoimmune hepatitis? Autoimmun Rev 2004; 3: 61-69.
69. Le Cann P, Tong MJ, Werneke J, Coursaget P. Detection of antibodies to hepatitis E virus in patients with autoimmune chronic active hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis. Scand J Gastroenterol 1997; 32: 387-89.
70. Vento S, Cainelli F, Ferraro T, Concia E. Autoimmune hepatitis type 1 after measles. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 2618-20.
71. Vento S, Guella L, Mirandola F, et al. Epstein-Barr virus as a trigger for autoimmune hepatitis in susceptible individuals. Lancet 1995; 346: 608-09.
72. Manns MP. Viruses and autoimmune liver disease. Intervirology 1993; 35: 108-15.
73. Ramakrishna J, Johnson AR, Banner BF. Long-term minocycline use for acne in healthy adolescents can cause severe autoimmune hepatitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2009; 43: 787-90.
74. Bjornsson E, Talwalkar J, Treeprasertsuk S, et al. Drug-induced autoimmune hepatitis: clinical characteristics and prognosis. Hepatology 2010; 51: 2040-48.
75. Eugene C, Patriarche C, Bergue A, Quevauvilliers J. Tienilic acid as a likely cause of "auto immune" active hepatitis (author's transl). Nouv Presse Med 1980; 9: 1885-87 (in French).
76. Hochman JA, Woodard SA, Cohen MB. Exacerbation of autoimmune hepatitis: another hepatotoxic effect of pemoline therapy. Pediatrics 1998; 101: 106-08.
77. Hong YG, Riegler JL. Is melatonin associated with the development of autoimmune hepatitis? J Clin Gastroenterol 1997; 25: 376-78.
78. Kosar Y, Sasmaz N, Oguz P, et al. Ornidazole-induced autoimmune hepatitis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2001; 13: 737-39.
79. Scully LJ, Clarke D, Barr RJ. Diclofenac induced hepatitis: 3 cases with features of autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci 1993; 38: 744-51.
80. Sipe WE, Su M, Posselt A, Kim GE, Quiros JA, Rosenthal P. Propylthiouracil-associated liver failure presenting as probable autoimmune hepatitis in a child with Graves' disease. Pediatr Transplant 2006; 10: 525-28.
81. Graziadei IW, Obermoser GE, Sepp NT, Erhart KH, Vogel W. Drug-induced lupus-like syndrome associated with severe autoimmune hepatitis. Lupus 2003; 12: 409-12.
82. Alla V, Abraham J, Siddiqui J, et al. Autoimmune hepatitis triggered by statins. J Clin Gastroenterol 2006; 40: 757-61.
83. Kamiyama T, Nouchi T, Kojima S, Murata N, Ikeda T, Sato C. Autoimmune hepatitis triggered by administration of an herbal medicine. Am J Gastroenterol 1997; 92: 703-04.
84. Hennes EM, Zeniya M, Czaja AJ, et al. Simplified criteria for the diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 2008; 48: 169-76.
85. Czaja AJ. Performance parameters of the diagnostic scoring systems for autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 2008; 48: 1540-48.
86. Yeoman AD, Westbrook RH, Al-Chalabi T, et al. Diagnostic value and utility of the simplified International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group Criteria (IAIHG) in acute and chronic liver disease. Hepatology 2009; 50: 538-45.
87. Stravitz RT, Lefkowitch JH, Fontana RJ, et al. Autoimmune acute liver failure: proposed clinical and histological criteria. Hepatology 2011; 53: 517-26.
88. Feld JJ, Dinh H, Arenovich T, Marcus VA, Wanless IR, Heathcote EJ. Autoimmune hepatitis: effect of symptoms and cirrhosis on natural history and outcome. Hepatology 2005; 42: 52-63.
89. Heneghan MA, Norris SM, O'Grady JG, Harrison PM, McFarlane IG. Management and outcome of pregnancy in autoimmune hepatitis. Gut 2001; 48: 97-102.
90. Samuel D, Riordan S, Strasser S, Kurtovic J, Singh-Grewel I, Koorey D. Severe autoimmune hepatitis first presenting in the early post partum period. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004; 2: 622-24.
91. Westbrook RH, Yeoman AD, Kriese S, Heneghan MA. Outcomes of pregnancy in women with autoimmune hepatitis. J Autoimmun 2012; 38: J239-44.
92. Schramm C, Herkel J, Beuers U, Kanzler S, Galle PR, Lohse AW. Pregnancy in autoimmune hepatitis: outcome and risk factors. Am J Gastroenterol 2006; 101: 556-60.
93. Steven MM, Buckley JD, Mackay IR. Pregnancy in chronic active hepatitis. Q J Med 1979; 48: 519-31.
94. Buchel E, Van Steenbergen W, Nevens F, Fevery J. Improvement of autoimmune hepatitis during pregnancy followed by flare-up after delivery. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: 3160-65.
95. Lohse AW, zum Buschenfelde KH, Franz B, Kanzler S, Gerken G, Dienes HP. Characterization of the overlap syndrome of primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) and autoimmune hepatitis: evidence for it being a hepatitic form of PBC in genetically susceptible individuals. Hepatology 1999; 29: 1078-84.
96. Czaja AJ, Rakela J, Ludwig J. Features reflective of early prognosis in corticosteroid-treated severe autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Gastroenterology 1988; 95: 448-53.
97. Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA. Decreased fibrosis during corticosteroid therapy of autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2004; 40: 646-52.
98. Batts KP, Ludwig J. Chronic hepatitis: an update on terminology and reporting. Am J Surg Pathol 1995; 19: 1409-17.
99. Soloway RD, Summerskill WH, Baggenstoss AH, et al. Clinical, biochemical, and histological remission of severe chronic active liver disease: a controlled study of treatments and early prognosis. Gastroenterology 1972; 63: 820-33.
100. Kirk AP, Jain S, Pocock S, Thomas HC, Sherlock S. Late results of the Royal Free Hospital prospective controlled trial of prednisolone therapy in hepatitis B surface antigen negative chronic active hepatitis. Gut 1980; 21: 78-83.
101. Cook GC, Mulligan R, Sherlock S. Controlled prospective trial of corticosteroid therapy in active chronic hepatitis. Q J Med 1971; 40: 159-85.
102. Murray-Lyon IM, Stern RB, Williams R. Controlled trial of prednisone and azathioprine in active chronic hepatitis. Lancet 1973; 1: 735-37.
103. Stellon AJ, Hegarty JE, Portmann B, Williams R. Randomised controlled trial of azathioprine withdrawal in autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Lancet 1985; 325: 668-70.
104. Stellon AJ, Keating JJ, Johnson PJ, McFarlane IG, Williams R. Maintenance of remission in autoimmune chronic active hepatitis with azathioprine after corticosteroid withdrawal. Hepatology 1988; 8: 781-84.
105. Manns MP, Woynarowski M, Kreisel W, et al. Budesonide induces remission more effectively than prednisone in a controlled trial of patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology 2010; 139: 1198-206.
106. Heneghan MA, Al-Chalabi T, McFarlane IG. Cost-effectiveness of pharmacotherapy for autoimmune hepatitis. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2006; 7: 145-56.
107. Langley PG, Underhill J, Tredger JM, Norris S, McFarlane IG. Thiopurine methyltransferase phenotype and genotype in relation to azathioprine therapy in autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2002; 37: 441-47.
108. Heneghan MA, Allan ML, Bornstein JD, Muir AJ, Tendler DA. Utility of thiopurine methyltransferase genotyping and phenotyping, and measurement of azathioprine metabolites in the management of patients with autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2006; 45: 584-91.
109. Czaja AJ, Wolf AM, Baggenstoss AH. Laboratory assessment of severe chronic active liver disease during and after corticosteroid therapy: correlation of serum transaminase and gamma globulin levels with histologic features. Gastroenterology 1981; 80: 687-92.
110. Dufour JF, DeLellis R, Kaplan MM. Reversibility of hepatic fibrosis in autoimmune hepatitis. Ann Intern Med 1997; 127: 981-85.
111. Cotler SJ, Jakate S, Jensen DM. Resolution of cirrhosis in autoimmune hepatitis with corticosteroid therapy. J Clin Gastroenterol 2001; 32: 428-30.
112. Verma S. In type 1 autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), should remission be redefined as normalization of transaminases? J Hepatol 2006; 44: 819-20.
113. Al-Chalabi T, Heneghan MA. Remission in autoimmune hepatitis: what is it, and can it ever be achieved? Am J Gastroenterol 2007; 102: 1013-15.
114. Miyake Y, Iwasaki Y, Terada R, et al. Persistent normalization of serum alanine aminotransferase levels improves the prognosis of type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2005; 43: 951-57.
115. Montano-Loza AJ, Carpenter HA, Czaja AJ. Improving the end point of corticosteroid therapy in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis to reduce the frequency of relapse. Am J Gastroenterol 2007; 102: 1005-12.
116. Hegarty JE, Nouri Aria KT, Portmann B, Eddleston AL, Williams R. Relapse following treatment withdrawal in patients with autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Hepatology 1983; 3: 685-89.
117. Johnson PJ, McFarlane IG, Williams R. Azathioprine for long-term maintenance of remission in autoimmune hepatitis. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 958-63.
118. Kanzler S, Gerken G, Lohr H, Galle PR, Meyer zum Buschenfelde KH, Lohse AW. Duration of immunosuppressive therapy in autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2001; 34: 354-55.
119. Malekzadeh R, Nasseri-Moghaddam S, Kaviani MJ, Taheri H, Kamalian N, Sotoudeh M. Cyclosporin A is a promising alternative to corticosteroids in autoimmune hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci 2001; 46: 1321-27.
120. Sherman KE, Narkewicz M, Pinto PC. Cyclosporine in the management of corticosteroid-resistant type I autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. J Hepatol 1994; 21: 1040-47.
121. Fernandes NF, Redeker AG, Vierling JM, Villamil FG, Fong TL. Cyclosporine therapy in patients with steroid resistant autoimmune hepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1999; 94: 241-48.
122. Van Thiel DH, Wright H, Carroll P, et al. Tacrolimus: a potential new treatment for autoimmune chronic active hepatitis: results of an open-label preliminary trial. Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90: 771-76.
123. Chatur N, Ramji A, Bain VG, et al. Transplant immunosuppressive agents in non-transplant chronic autoimmune hepatitis: the Canadian association for the study of liver (CASL) experience with mycophenolate mofetil and tacrolimus. Liver Int 2005; 25: 723-27.
124. Alvarez F, Ciocca M, Canero-Velasco C, et al. Short-term cyclosporine induces a remission of autoimmune hepatitis in children. J Hepatol 1999; 30: 222-27.
125. Debray D, Maggiore G, Girardet JP, Mallet E, Bernard O. Effi cacy of cyclosporin A in children with type 2 autoimmune hepatitis. J Pediatr 1999; 135: 111-14.
126. Sciveres M, Caprai S, Palla G, Ughi C, Maggiore G. Effectiveness and safety of ciclosporin as therapy for autoimmune diseases of the liver in children and adolescents. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2004; 19: 209-17.
127. Cuarterolo M, Ciocca M, Velasco CC, et al. Follow-up of children with autoimmune hepatitis treated with cyclosporine. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2006; 43: 635-39.
128. Danielsson A, Prytz H. Oral budesonide for treatment of autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1994; 8: 585-90.
129. Czaja AJ, Lindor KD. Failure of budesonide in a pilot study of treatment-dependent autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology 2000; 119: 1312-16.
130. Csepregi A, Rocken C, Treiber G, Malfertheiner P. Budesonide induces complete remission in autoimmune hepatitis. World J Gastroenterol 2006; 12: 1362-66.
131. Zandieh I, Krygier D, Wong V, et al. The use of budesonide in the treatment of autoimmune hepatitis in Canada. Can J Gastroenterol 2008; 22: 388-92.
132. Wiegand J, Schuler A, Kanzler S, et al. Budesonide in previously untreated autoimmune hepatitis. Liver Int 2005; 25: 927-34.
133. Heneghan MA, McFarlane IG. Current and novel immunosuppressive therapy for autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 2002; 35: 7-13.
134. Richardson PD, James PD, Ryder SD. Mycophenolate mofetil for maintenance of remission in autoimmune hepatitis in patients resistant to or intolerant of azathioprine. J Hepatol 2000; 33: 371-75.
135. Hlivko JT, Shiff man ML, Stravitz RT, et al. A single center review of the use of mycophenolate mofetil in the treatment of autoimmune hepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008; 6: 1036-40.
136. Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA. Empiric therapy of autoimmune hepatitis with mycophenolate mofetil: comparison with conventional treatment for refractory disease. J Clin Gastroenterol 2005; 39: 819-25.
137. Hennes EM, Oo Y, Schramm C, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil as second line therapy in autoimmune hepatitis? Am J Gastroenterol 2008; 103: 3063-70.
138. Brunt EM, Di Bisceglie AM. Histological changes after the use of mycophenolate mofetil in autoimmune hepatitis. Hum Pathol 2004; 35: 509-12.
139. Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA, Lindor KD. Ursodeoxycholic acid as adjunctive therapy for problematic type 1 autoimmune hepatitis: a randomized placebo-controlled treatment trial. Hepatology 1999; 30: 1381-86.
140. Kanzler S, Gerken G, Dienes HP, Meyer zum Buschenfelde KH, Lohse AW. Cyclophosphamide as alternative immunosuppressive therapy for autoimmune hepatitis-report of three cases. Z Gastroenterol 1997; 35: 571-78.
141. Burak KW, Urbanski SJ, Swain MG. Successful treatment of refractory type 1 autoimmune hepatitis with methotrexate. J Hepatol 1998; 29: 990-93.
142. Goldenberg G, Jorizzo JL. Use of etanercept in treatment of pyoderma gangrenosum in a patient with autoimmune hepatitis. J Dermatolog Treat 2005; 16: 347-49.
143. Santos ES, Arosemena LR, Raez LE, O'Brien C, Regev A. Successful treatment of autoimmune hepatitis and idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura with the monoclonal antibody, rituximab: case report and review of literature. Liver Int 2006; 26: 625-29.
144. Schvarcz R, Glaumann H, Weiland O. Survival and histological resolution of fibrosis in patients with autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. J Hepatol 1993; 18: 15-23.
145. Hoeroldt B, McFarlane E, Dube A, Basumani P, Karajeh M, Campbell MJ, Gleeson D. Long-term outcomes of patients with autoimmune hepatitis managed at a nontransplant center. Gastroenterology 2011; 140: 1980-88.
146. Werner M, Almer S, Prytz H, et al. Hepatic and extrahepatic malignancies in autoimmune hepatitis: a long-term follow-up in 473 Swedish patients. J Hepatol 2009; 50: 388-93.
147. Yeoman AD, Al-Chalabi T, Karani JB, et al. Evaluation of risk factors in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in autoimmune hepatitis: implications for follow-up and screening. Hepatology 2008; 48: 863-70.
148. Montano-Loza AJ, Carpenter HA, Czaja AJ. Predictive factors for hepatocellular carcinoma in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2008; 103: 1944-51.
149. Miyake Y, Iwasaki Y, Terada R, et al. Clinical characteristics of fulminant-type autoimmune hepatitis: an analysis of eleven cases. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2006; 23: 1347-53.
150. Roberts MS, Angus DC, Bryce CL, Valenta Z, Weissfeld L. Survival after liver transplantation in the United States: a disease-specific analysis of the UNOS database. Liver Transpl 2004; 10: 886-97.
151. Duclos-Vallee JC, Sebagh M, Rifai K, et al. A 10 year follow up study of patients transplanted for autoimmune hepatitis: histological recurrence precedes clinical and biochemical recurrence. Gut 2003; 52: 893-97.
152. Neuberger J, Portmann B, Calne R, Williams R. Recurrence of autoimmune chronic active hepatitis following orthotopic liver grafting. Transplantation 1984; 37: 363-65.
153. Gautam M, Cheruvattath R, Balan V. Recurrence of autoimmune liver disease after liver transplantation: a systematic review. Liver Transpl 2006; 12: 1813-24.
154. Kerkar N, Hadzic N, Davies ET, et al. De-novo autoimmune hepatitis after liver transplantation. Lancet 1998; 351: 409-13.
155. Heneghan MA, Portmann BC, Norris SM, et al. Graft dysfunction mimicking autoimmune hepatitis following liver transplantation in adults. Hepatology 2001; 34: 464-70.
156. Berardi S, Lodato F, Gramenzi A, et al. High incidence of allograft dysfunction in liver transplanted patients treated with pegylated-interferon alpha-2b and ribavirin for hepatitis C recurrence: possible de novo autoimmune hepatitis? Gut 2007; 56: 237-42.
157. Cholongitas E, Samonakis D, Patch D, et al. Induction of autoimmune hepatitis by pegylated interferon in a liver transplant patient with recurrent hepatitis C virus. Transplantation 2006; 81: 488-90.
158. Mieli-Vergani G, Vergani D. De novo autoimmune hepatitis after liver transplantation. J Hepatol 2004; 40: 3-7.
159. Ben-Ari Z, Dhillon AP, Sherlock S. Autoimmune cholangiopathy: part of the spectrum of autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Hepatology 1993; 18: 10-15.
160. Colombato LA, Alvarez F, Cote J, Huet PM. Autoimmune cholangiopathy: the result of consecutive primary biliary cirrhosis and autoimmune hepatitis? Gastroenterology 1994; 107: 1839-43.
161. Gohlke F, Lohse AW, Dienes HP, et al. Evidence for an overlap syndrome of autoimmune hepatitis and primary sclerosing cholangitis. J Hepatol 1996; 24: 699-705.
162. Boberg KM, Chapman RW, Hirschfi eld GM, Lohse AW, Manns MP, Schrumpf E. Overlap syndromes: the International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group (IAIHG) position statement on a controversial issue. J Hepatol 2011; 54: 374-85.
163. Abdo AA, Bain VG, Kichian K, Lee SS. Evolution of autoimmune hepatitis to primary sclerosing cholangitis: a sequential syndrome. Hepatology 2002; 36: 1393-99.
164. Poupon R, Chazouilleres O, Corpechot C, Chretien Y. Development of autoimmune hepatitis in patients with typical primary biliary cirrhosis. Hepatology 2006; 44: 85-90.
165. Angulo P, El-Amin O, Carpenter HA, Lindor KD. Development of autoimmune hepatitis in the setting of long-standing primary biliary cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 3021-27.
166. Duclos-Vallee JC, Hadengue A, Ganne-Carrie N, Robin E, Degott C, Erlinger S. Primary biliary cirrhosis-autoimmune hepatitis overlap syndrome: corticoresistance and effective treatment by cyclosporine A. Dig Dis Sci 1995; 40: 1069-73.
167. Czaja AJ. The variant forms of autoimmune hepatitis. Ann Intern Med 1996; 125: 588-98.
168. Al-Chalabi T, Portmann BC, Bernal W, McFarlane IG, Heneghan MA. Autoimmune hepatitis overlap syndromes: an evaluation of treatment response, long-term outcome and survival. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008; 28: 209-20.
169. Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA. Autoimmune hepatitis with incidental histologic features of bile duct injury. Hepatology 2001; 34: 659-65.
170. Ahonen P, Myllarniemi S, Sipila I, Perheentupa J. Clinical variation of autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy (APECED) in a series of 68 patients. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1829-36.
171. Vogel A, Liermann H, Harms A, Strassburg CP, Manns MP, Obermayer-Straub P. Autoimmune regulator AIRE: evidence for genetic differences between autoimmune hepatitis and hepatitis as part of the autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 1. Hepatology 2001; 33: 1047-52.
172. Chazouilleres O, Wendum D, Serfaty L, Montembault S, Rosmorduc O, Poupon R. Primary biliary cirrhosis-autoimmune hepatitis overlap syndrome: clinical features and response to therapy. Hepatology 1998; 28: 296-301.
173. Joshi S, Cauch-Dudek K, Wanless IR, et al. Primary biliary cirrhosis with additional features of autoimmune hepatitis: response to therapy with ursodeoxycholic acid. Hepatology 2002; 35: 409-13.
174. Gregorio GV, Portmann B, Karani J, et al. Autoimmune hepatitis/ sclerosing cholangitis overlap syndrome in childhood: a 16-year prospective study. Hepatology 2001; 33: 544-53.