Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia-Part I: Structural Heart Disease and Acquired Causes

Current Problems in Cardiology

Volumn 38, Issue 11, 2013, Pages 463-496

  Choudhuri, Indrajit ^a   Pinninti, Mamatha ^a   Marwali, Muhammad R ^a   Sra, Jasbir ^a   Akhtar, Masood ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMIODARONE; GLYCERYL TRINITRATE; ISOPRENALINE; LIDOCAINE;

ARTICLE; BRADYCARDIA; CARDIAC CHANNELOPATHY; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CAUSE OF DEATH; CELL HETEROGENEITY; CHAGAS DISEASE; CLINICAL EVALUATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; DIGITALIS INTOXICATION; DISEASE ACTIVITY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG EFFICACY; ELECTROCARDIOGRAM; ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY; HEART DISEASE; HEART REPOLARIZATION; HEART RIGHT VENTRICLE DYSPLASIA; HEART VENTRICLE FIBRILLATION; HUMAN; HYPERTROPHIC CARDIOMYOPATHY; HYPOKALEMIA; HYPOMAGNESEMIA; IMPLANTABLE CARDIOVERTER DEFIBRILLATOR; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LONG QT SYNDROME; POLYMORPHIC VENTRICULAR TACHYCARDIA; PREVALENCE; QRS COMPLEX; QT INTERVAL; QT PROLONGATION; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; ST SEGMENT; STRUCTURAL HEART DISEASE; SUDDEN CARDIAC DEATH; T WAVE; TORSADE DES POINTES; TPEAK TEND INTERVAL; VENTRICULAR NONCOMPACTION;

BRADYCARDIA; DEATH, SUDDEN, CARDIAC; ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY; HUMANS; LONG QT SYNDROME; MYOCARDIAL ISCHEMIA; TACHYCARDIA, VENTRICULAR; TORSADES DE POINTES;

EID: 84885908052     PISSN: 01462806     EISSN: 15356280     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2013.07.001     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. Fishman G.I., Chugh S.S., Dimarco J.P., et al. Sudden cardiac death prediction and prevention: report from a National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and Heart Rhythm Society Workshop. Circulation 2010, 122:2335-2348.
2. Goldberger J.J., Buxton A.E., Cain M., et al. Risk stratification for arrhythmic sudden cardiac death: identifying the roadblocks. Circulation 2011, 123:2423-2430.
3. Junttila M.J., Castellanos A., Huikuri H.V., Myerburg R.J. Risk markers of sudden cardiac death in standard 12-lead electrocardiograms. Ann Med 2012, 44:717-732.
4. John R.M., Tedrow U.B., Koplan B.A., et al. Ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. Lancet 2012, 380:1520-1529.
5. Deo R., Albert C.M. Epidemiology and genetics of sudden cardiac death. Circulation 2012, 125:620-637.
6. Myerburg R.J. Epidemiology of ventricular tachycardia/ventricular fibrillation and sudden cardiac death. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1986, 9:1334-1338.
7. Myerburg R.J., Kessler K.M., Castellanos A. Sudden cardiac death. Structure, function, and time-dependence of risk. Circulation 1992, 85:I2-10.
8. Hadid C., Almendral J., Ortiz M., et al. Incidence, determinants and prognostic implications of true pleomorphism of ventricular tachycardia in patients with implantable cardioverter-defibrillators: a substudy of the DATAS trial. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 2011, 4:33-42.
9. Baher A.A., Uy M., Xie F., Garfinkel A., Qu Z., Weiss J.N. Bidirectional ventricular tachycardia: ping pong in the His-Purkinje system. Heart Rhythm 2011, 8:599-605.
10. Waldo A.L., Akhtar M., Brugada P., et al. The minimally appropriate electrophysiologic study for the initial assessment of patients with documented sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia. J Am Coll Cardiol 1985, 6:1174-1177.
11. Buxton A.E., Josephson M.E., Marchlinski F.E., Miller J.M. Polymorphic ventricular tachycardia induced by programmed stimulation: response to procainamide. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993, 21:90-98.
12. Nguyen P.T., Scheinman M.M., Seger J. Polymorphous ventricular tachycardia: clinical characterization, therapy, and the QT interval. Circulation 1986, 74:340-349.
13. Zipes D.P., Camm A.J., Borggrefe M., et al. ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 guidelines for management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to develop guidelines for management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death). J Am Coll Cardiol 2006, 48:e247-e346. European Heart Rhythm Association, European Heart Rhythm Association. Heart Rhythm SocietyEuropean Heart Rhythm Association. Heart Rhythm Society.
14. Dessertenne F. La tachycardia ventriculaire a deux foyers opposes variables. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss 1966, 59:263-272.
15. Adams R. Cases of diseases of the heart, accompanied with pathological observations. Dublin Hospital Reports 1827, 4:353-453.
16. Stokes W. Observations on some cases of permanently slow pulses. Dublin Q J Med Sci 1846, 2:73-85.
17. Zipes D.P., Libby P., Bonow R., Braunwald E. Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine 2005, 840. W.B. Saunders, Philadephia. 7th ed.
18. Antzelevitch C., Sicouri S. Clinical relevance of cardiac arrhythmias generated by afterdepolarizations. Role of M cells in the generation of U waves, triggered activity and torsade de pointes. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994, 23:259-277.
19. Jackman W.M., Friday K.J., Anderson J.L., Aliot E.M., Clark M., Lazzara R. The long QT syndromes: a critical review, new clinical observations and a unifying hypothesis. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1988, 31:115-172.
20. Horowitz L.N., Greenspan A.M., Spielman S.R., Josephson M.E. Torsades de pointes: electrophysiologic studies in patients without transient pharmacologic or metabolic abnormalities. Circulation 1981, 63:1120-1128.
21. Evans T.R., Curry P.V., Fitchett D.H., Krikler D.M. Torsade de pointes initiated by ventricular stimulation. J Electrocardiol 1976, 9:255-258.
22. Moise N.S. As Americans, we should get this right. Circulation 1999, 100:1462.
23. Danenberg H.D., Hasin Y. Polymorphic ventricular tachycardia and repolarization abnormalities accompanying intracerebral hemorrhage. Circulation 2000, 101:E81.
24. Torres V., Flowers D., Somberg J. The clinical significance of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia provoked at electrophysiologic testing. Am Heart J 1985, 110:17-24.
25. Epstein A.E., DiMarco J.P., Ellenbogen K.A., et al. ACC/AHA/HRS 2008 Guidelines for device-based therapy of Cardiac Rhythm Abnormalities: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to revise the ACC/AHA/NASPE 2002 guideline update for implantation of cardiac pacemakers and antiarrhythmia devices): developed in collaboration with the American Association for Thoracic Surgery and Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Circulation 2008, 117:e350-e408.
26. Akhtar M. Techniques of electrophysiologic evaluation. Hurst's The Heart 2007, 1064-1076. McGraw-Hill, New York. 12th ed. V. Fuster, R.A. O'Rourke, R.A. Walsh, P. Poole-Wilson (Eds.).
27. Choudhuri I., Akhtar M. Electrophysiologic studies. Cardiology: An Illustrated Text Book 2012, 686-697. Jay Pee Brothers Medical Publishers Ltd, New Delhi, India. K. Chatterjee, M. Anderson, D. Heistad, R. Kerber (Eds.).
28. Aliot E.M., Stevenson W.G., Almendral-Garrote J.M., et al. EHRA/HRS expert consensus on catheter ablation of ventricular arrhythmias: developed in a partnership with the European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA), a Registered Branch of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC), and the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS); in collaboration with the American College of Cardiology (ACC) and the American Heart Association (AHA). Heart Rhythm 2009, 6:886-933.
29. Yan G.X., Lankipalli R.S., Burke J.F., Musco S., Kowey P.R. Ventricular repolarization components on the electrocardiogram: cellular basis and clinical significance. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003, 42:401-409.
30. Gussak I., Bjerregaard P., Egan T.M., Chaitman B.R. ECG phenomenon called the J wave. History, pathophysiology, and clinical significance. J Electrocardiol 1995, 28:49-58.
31. Osborn J.J. Experimental hypothermia: respiratory and blood pH changes in relation to cardiac function. Am J Physiol 1953, 175:389-398.
32. Aizawa Y., Tamura M., Chinushi M., et al. Idiopathic ventricular fibrillation and bradycardia-dependent intraventricular block. Am Heart J 1993, 126:1473-1474.
33. Gussak I., Antzelevitch C. Early repolarization syndrome: clinical characteristics and possible cellular and ionic mechanisms. J Electrocardiol 2000, 33:299-309.
34. Kalla H., Yan G.X., Marinchak R. Ventricular fibrillation in a patient with prominent J (Osborn) waves and ST-segment elevation in the inferior electrocardiographic leads: a Brugada syndrome variant?. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2000, 11:95-98.
35. Antzelevitch C., Yan G.X. Cellular and ionic mechanisms responsible for the Brugada syndrome. J Electrocardiol 2000, 33:33-39.
36. Yan G.X., Antzelevitch C. Cellular basis for the electrocardiographic J wave. Circulation 1996, 93:372-379.
37. Antzelevitch C. Cardiac repolarization. The long and short of it. Europace 2005, 7:3-9.
38. end provide an index of transmural dispersion of repolarization?. Heart Rhythm 2007, 4:1114-1119.
39. end interval on the resting ECG is associated with increased risk of sudden cardiac death. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 2011, 4:441-447.
40. Antzelevitch C., Yan G.X., Shimizu W., Burashnikov A. Electrical hetereogeneity, the ECG, and cardiac arrhythmias. Cardiac Electrophysiology: From Cell to Bedside 1999, 222-238. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia. 3rd ed. D.P. Zipes, J. Jalife (Eds.).
41. Yan G.X., Wu Y., Liu T., Wang J., Marinchak R.A., Kowey P.R. Phase 2 early afterdepolarization as a trigger of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia in acquired long-QT syndrome: direct evidence from intracellular recordings in the intact left ventricular wall. Circulation 2001, 103:2851-2856.
42. Medina-Ravell V.A., Lankipalli R.S., Yan G.X., et al. Effect of epicardial or biventricular pacing to prolong QT interval and increase transmural dispersion of repolarization: does resynchronization therapy pose a risk for patients predisposed to long QT or torsade de pointes?. Circulation 2003, 107:740-746.
43. Yan G.X., Martin J. Electrocardiographic T wave: a symbol of transmural dispersion of repolarization in the ventricles. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2003, 14:639-640.
44. Lubinski A., Kornacewicz-Jach Z., Wnuk-Wojnar A.M., et al. The terminal portion of the T wave: a new electrocardiographic marker of risk of ventricular arrhythmias. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2000, 23:1957-1959.
45. Yan G.X., Lankipalli R.S., Kowey P.R. Current concepts in the management of long QT syndrome. Expert Opin Ther Patents 2002, 12:633-643.
46. Takenaka K., Ai T., Shimizu W., et al. Exercise stress test amplifies genotype-phenotype correlation in the LQT1 and LQT2 forms of the long-QT syndrome. Circulation 2003, 107:838-844.
47. Wolfe C.L., Nibley C., Bhandari A., Chatterjee K., Scheinman M. Polymorphous ventricular tachycardia associated with acute myocardial infarction. Circulation 1991, 84:1543-1551.
48. Fields A.V., Mehta N.N., Simson M.B., Lin D., Marchlinski F.E. Recurrent polymorphic ventricular tachycardia associated with variant angina effective treatment with implantable cardioverter defibrillator. Heart Rhythm 2006, 3:S216. [abstract].
49. Chakraborty P., Mukerjee S., Sardana R. Polymorphic ventricular tachycardia due to acute coronary ischemia: a case report. Indian Pacing Electrophysiol J 2010, 26:184-189.
50. Gorenek B., Cengiz O., Kudaiberdieva G., et al. Mode of onset of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia in acute myocardial infarction. Can J Cardiol 2010, 26:e254-e257.
51. Opitz C.F., Mitchell G.F., Pfeffer M.A., Pfeffer J.M. Arrhythmias and death after coronary occlusion in the rat. Continuous telemetric ECG monitoring in conscious, untethered rats. Circulation 1995, 92:253-261.
52. + activity in swine. Circulation 1980, 61:768-778.
53. Coronel R., Fiolet J.W., Wilms-Schopman F.J., et al. Distribution of extracellular potassium and its relation to electrophysiologic changes during acute myocardial ischemia in the isolated perfused porcine heart. Circulation 1988, 77:1125-1138.
54. Harris A.S., Bisteni A., Russell R.A., Brigham J.C., Firestone J.E. Excitatory factors in ventricular tachycardia resulting from myocardial ischemia: potassium a major excitant. Science 1954, 199:200-203.
55. Ansdorf M.F., Schreiner E., Gambetta M., Friedlander I., Childers R.W. Electrophysiological changes in the canine atrium and ventricle during progressive hyperkalemia: electrocardiographical correlates and the in vivo validation of in vitro predictors. Cardiovasc Res 1977, 11:409-418.
56. Dennis J., Moore R.M. Potassium changes in functioning heart under conditions of ischemia and congestion. Am J Physiol 1938, 123:443-447.
57. Harris A.S. Potassium and experimental coronary occlusion. Am Heart J 1966, 71:797-802.
58. Kléber A.G. Extracellular potassium accumulation in acute myocardial ischemia. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1984, 16:389-394.
59. Wilde A.A., Escande D., Schumacher C.A., et al. Potassium accumulation in globally ischemic mammalian heart: a role for the ATP-sensitive potassium channel. Circ Res 1990, 67:835-843.
60. Gasser R.N., Vaughan-Jones R.D. Mechanism of potassium efflux and action potential shortening during ischaemia in isolated mammalian cardiac muscle. J Physiol 1990, 431:713-741.
61. Brooks C.M., Gilbert J.L., Greenspan M.E., Lange G., Mazzella H.M. Excitability and electrical response of ischemic heart muscle. Am J Physiol 1960, 198:1143-1147.
62. Elharrar Y., Zipes D.P. Cardiac electrophysiologic alterations during myocardial ischemia. Am J Physiol 1977, 233:H329-H345.
63. Downar E., Janse M.J., Durrer D. The effects of acute coronary artery occlusion on subepicardial transmembrane potentials in the intact porcine heart. Circulation 1977, 56:217-224.
64. Wilenky R.L., Tranum-Jensen J., Coronel R., Wilde A.A., Frolet J.W., Janse M.J. The subendocardial border zone during acute ischemia of the rabbit heart: an electrophysiologic, metabolic, and morphologic correlative study. Circulation 1986, 74:1137-1146.
65. Johnson T.A., Engle C.L., Boyd L.M., Koch G.G., Gwinn M., Gettes L.S. Magnitude and time course of extracellular potassium inhomogeneities during acute ischemia in pigs. Circulation 1991, 83:622-634.
66. Avitall B., Naimi S., Brilla A.H., Levine H.J. A computerized system for measuring dispersion of repolarization in the intact heart. J Appl Physiol 1974, 37:456-458.
67. Horacek T., Neumann M., von Mutius S., Budden M., Meesmann W. Nonhomogeneous electrophysiological changes and the bimodal distribution of early ventricular arrhythmias during acute coronary artery occlusion. Basic Res Cardiol 1984, 79:649-667.
68. Yan G.X., Joshi A., Guo D., et al. Phase 2 reentry as a trigger to initiate ventricular fibrillation during early acute myocardial ischemia. Circulation 2004, 110:1036-1041.
69. Morady F., Scheinman M.M., Shen E., Shapiro W., Sung R.J., DiCarlo L. Intravenous amiodarone in the acute treatment of recurrent symptomatic ventricular tachycardia. Am J Cardiol 1983, 51:156-159.
70. Mostow N.D., Rakita L., Vrobel T.R., Noon D., Blumer J. Amiodarone: intravenous loading for rapid suppression of complex ventricular arrhythmias. J Am Coll Cardiol 1984, 4:97-104.
71. Oechslin E.N., Attenhofer Jost C.H., Rojas J.R., Kaufmann P.A., Jenni R. Long-term follow-up of 34 adults with isolated left ventricular noncompaction: a distinct cardiomyopathy with poor prognosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000, 36:493-500.
72. Weiford B.C., Subbarao V.D., Mulhern K.M. Noncompaction of the ventricular myocardium. Circulation 2004, 109:2965-2971.
73. Chin T.K., Perloff J.K., Williams R.G., Jue K., Mohrmann R. Isolated noncompaction of left ventricular myocardium. A study of eight cases. Circulation 1990, 82:507-513.
74. Kobza R., Jenni R., Erne P., Oechslin E., Duru F. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators in patients with left ventricular noncompaction. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2008, 31:461-467.
75. Maron B.J., Shen W.K., Link M.S., et al. Efficacy of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators for the prevention of sudden death in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 2000, 342:365-373.
76. Woo A., Monakier D., Harris L., et al. Determinants of implantable defibrillator discharges in high-risk patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Heart 2007, 93:1044-1045.
77. Maron B.J., Spirito P., Shen W.K., et al. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators and prevention of sudden cardiac death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Med Assoc 2007, 298:405-412.
78. Philips B., Madhavan S., James C., et al. Outcomes of catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 2012, 5:499-505.
79. Rassi A., Rassi A., Rassi S.G. Predictors of mortality in chronic Chagas disease: a systematic review of observational studies. Circulation 2007, 115:1101-1108.
80. Pedrosa R.C., Salles J.H., Magnanini M.M., Bezerra D.C., Bloch K.V. Prognostic value of exercise-induced ventricular arrhythmia in Chagas' heart disease. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2011, 34:1492-1497.
81. Muratore C.A., Batista Sa L.A., Chiale P.A., et al. Implantable cardioverter defibrillators and Chagas' disease: results of the ICD Registry Latin America. Europace 2009, 11:164-168.
82. Cardinalli-Neto A., Bestetti R.B., Cordeiro J.A., Rodrigues V.C. Predictors of all-cause mortality for patients with chronic Chagas' heart disease receiving implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapy. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2007, 18:1236-1240.
83. Falk R.H., Rubinow A., Cohen A.S. Cardiac arrhythmias in systemic amyloidosis: correlation with echocardiographic abnormalities. J Am Coll Cardiol 1984, 3:107-113.
84. Wright J.R., Calkins E. Clinical-pathologic differentiation of common amyloid syndromes. Medicine (Baltimore) 1981, 60:429-448.
85. Goldsmith Y.B., Liu J., Chou J., Hoffman J., Comenzo R.L., Steingart R.M. Frequencies and types of arrhythmias in patients with systemic light-chain amyloidosis with cardiac involvement undergoing stem cell transplantation on telemetry monitoring. Am J Cardiol 2009, 104:990-994.
86. Antzelevitch C., Shimizu W., Yan G.X., et al. The M cell: its contribution to the ECG and to normal and abnormal electrical function of the heart. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1999, 10:1124-1152.
87. Zygmunt A.C., Goodrow R.J., Antzelevitch C.I. NaCa contributes to electrical heterogeneity within the canine ventricle. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2000, 278:H1671-H1678.
88. Sicouri S., Moro S., Litovsky S.H., Elizari M.V., Antzelevitch C. Chronic amiodarone reduces transmural dispersion of repolarization in the canine heart. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1997, 8:1269-1279.
89. Shimizu W., McMahon B., Antzelevitch C. Sodium pentobarbital reduces transmural dispersion of repolarization and prevents torsade de pointes in models of acquired and congenital long QT syndrome. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1999, 10:156-164.
90. Topilski I., Rogowski O., Rosso R., et al. The morphology of the QT interval predicts torsade de pointes during acquired bradyarrhythmias. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007, 49:320-328.
91. Yamaguchi M., Shimizu M., Ino H., et al. T wave peak-to-end interval and QT dispersion in acquired long QT syndrome: a new index for arrhythmogenicity. Clin Sci (Lond) 2003, 105:671-676.
92. Hinterseer M., Thomsen M.B., Beckmann B.M., et al. Beat-to-beat variability of QT intervals is increased in patients with drug-induced long-QT syndrome: a case control pilot study. Eur Heart J 2008, 29:185-190.
93. Swerdlow C.D., Martin D.J., Kass R.M., et al. The zone of vulnerability to T wave shocks in humans. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1997, 8:145-154.
94. Bednar M.M., Harrigan E.P., Anziano R.J., Camm A.J., Ruskin J.N. The QT interval. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2001, 43:1-45.
95. Schwartz P.J., Priori S.G., Spazzolini C., et al. Genotype-phenotype correlation in the long-QT syndrome: gene-specific triggers for life-threatening arrhythmias. Circulation 2001, 103:89-95.
96. Antzelevitch C., Dumaine R. Electrical heterogeneity in the heart: physiological, pharmacological and clinical implications. Handbook of Physiology, Section 2, The Cardiovascular System 2001, 654-692. Oxford University Press, New York. E. Page, H.A. Fozzard, R.J. Solaro (Eds.).
97. Belardinelli L., Antzelevitch C., Vos M.A. Assessing predictors of drug-induced torsade de pointes. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2003, 24:619-625.
98. Antzelevitch C. Heterogeneity of cellular repolarization in LQTS: the role of M cells. Eur Heart J 2001, 3:K2-K16.
99. Antzelevitch C., Nesterenko V.V., Muzikant A.L., Rice J.J., Chen G., Colatsky T. Influence of transmural repolarization gradients on the electrophysiology and pharmacology of ventricular myocardium. Cellular basis for the Brugada and long-QT syndromes. Philos Trans R Soc Lond 2001, 359:1201-1216.
100. Weissenburger J., Nesterenko V.V., Antzelevitch C. Transmural heterogeneity of ventricular repolarization under baseline and long QT conditions in the canine heart in vivo: torsades de pointes develops with halothane but not pentobarbital anesthesia. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2000, 11:290-304.
101. Kozhevnikov D.O., Yamamoto K., Robotis D., Restivo M., El-Sherif N. Electrophysiological mechanism of enhanced susceptibility of hypertrophied heart to acquired torsade de pointes arrhythmias: tridimensional mapping of activation and recovery patterns. Circulation 2002, 105:1128-1134.
102. Vos M.A., van Opstal J.M., Leunissen J.D., Verduyn S.C. Electrophysiologic parameters and predisposing factors in the generation of drug-induced torsade de pointes arrhythmias. Pharmacol Ther 2001, 92:109-122.
103. Akar F.G., Yan G.X., Antzelevitch C., Rosenbaum D.S. Unique topographical distribution of M cells underlies reentrant mechanism of torsade de pointes in the long-QT syndrome. Circulation 2002, 105:1247-1253.
104. Sicouri S., Antzelevitch C. A subpopulation of cells with unique electrophysiological properties in the deep subepicardium of the canine ventricle. The M cell. Circ Res 1991, 68:1729-1741.
105. Antzelevitch C., Shimizu W. Cellular mechanisms underlying the long QT syndrome. Curr Opin Cardiol 2002, 17:43-51.
106. Zygmunt A.C., Thomas G.P., Belardinelli L., Blackburn B., Antzelevitch C. Ranolazine produces ion channel effects similar to those observed with chronic amiodarone in canine cardiac ventricular myocytes. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2002, 25. [abstract, II-626].
107. Antzelevitch C., Sicouri S., Litovsky S.H., et al. Heterogeneity within the ventricular wall. Electrophysiology and pharmacology of epicardial, endocardial, and M cells. Circ Res 1991, 69:1427-1449.
108. Yan G.X., Antzelevitch C. Cellular basis for the normal T wave and the electrocardiographic manifestations of the long-QT syndrome. Circulation 1998, 98:1928-1936.
109. Huang C.L., Kuo E. Mechanism of hypokalemia in magnesium deficiency. J Am Soc Nephrol 2007, 18:2649-2652.
110. Lelièvre L.G., Lechat P. Mechanisms, manifestations, and management of digoxin toxicity. Heart Metab 2007, 35:9-11.
111. Cerrone M., Noujaim S.F., Tolkacheva E.G., et al. Arrhythmogenic mechanisms in a mouse model of catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia. Circ Res 2007, 101:1039-1048.
112. Ejvinsson G., Orinius E. Prodromal ventricular premature beats preceded by a diastolic wave. Acta Med Scand 1980, 208(6):445-450.
113. El-Sherif N., Chinushi M., Caref E.B., Restivo M. Electrophysiological mechanism of the characteristic electrocardiographic morphology of torsade de pointes tachyarrhythmias in the long-QT syndrome: detailed analysis of ventricular tridimensional activation patterns. Circulation 1997, 96:4392-4399.
114. 2+ content. Am J Physiol 1986, 250:H654-H661.
115. Bers D.M., Bassani R.A., Bassani J.W., Baudet S., Hryshko L.V. Paradoxical twitch potentiation after rest in cardiac muscle: increased fractional release of SR calcium. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1993, 25:1047-1057.
116. El-Sherif N., Caref E.B., Chinushi M., Restivo M. Mechanism of arrhythmogenicity of the short-long cardiac sequence that precedes ventricular tachyarrhythmias in the long QT syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999, 33:1415-1423.
117. Roden D.M., Anderson M.E. The pause that refreshes, or does it? Mechanisms in torsades de pointes. Heart 2000, 84:235-237.
118. Shimizu W., Antzelevitch C. Cellular basis for long QT, transmural dispersion of repolarization, and torsade de pointes in the long QT syndrome. J Electrocardiol 1999, 32:177-184.
119. Banai S., Tzivoni D. Drug therapy for torsade de pointes. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1993, 4:206-210.
120. Khan I.A. Clinical and therapeutic aspects of congenital and acquired long QT syndrome. Am J Med 2002, 112:58-66.
121. Mönnig G., Köbe J., Löher A., et al. Role of implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapy in patients with acquired long QT syndrome: a long-term follow-up. Europace 2012, 14:396-401.
122. Pickham D., Helfenbein E., Shinn J.A., et al. High prevalence of corrected QT interval prolongation in acutely ill patients is associated with mortality: results of the QT in practice (QTIP) study. Crit Care Med 2012, 40:394-399.
123. Digby G.C., Pérez Riera A.R., Barbosa Barros R., et al. Acquired long QT interval: a case series of multifactorial QT prolongation. Clin Cardiol 2011, 34:577-582.