A rootless rockies - Support and lithospheric structure of the Colorado Rocky Mountains inferred from CREST and TA seismic data

Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems

Volumn 14, Issue 8, 2013, Pages 2670-2695

  Hansen, Steven M ^a,b   Dueker, Ken G ^a,b   Stachnik, Josh C ^c   Aster, Richard C ^d   Karlstrom, Karl E ^e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

^c LEHIGH UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d NEW MEXICO INSTITUTE OF MINING AND TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO   (United States)

Author keywords

Cenozoic volcanism; Colorado Rocky Mountains; lithosphere asthenosphere boundary; receiver functions; surface waves; topographic support

Indexed keywords

LANDFORMS; PLANETARY SURFACE ANALYSIS; SEISMIC RESPONSE; SEISMIC WAVES; SHEAR WAVES; SURFACE WAVES; TOPOGRAPHY; VELOCITY;

CENOZOIC VOLCANISM; LITHOSPHERE-ASTHENOSPHERE BOUNDARY; LITHOSPHERIC STRUCTURE; NEGATIVE CORRELATION; RECEIVER FUNCTIONS; ROCKY MOUNTAINS; SURFACE-WAVE TOMOGRAPHY; TEMPERATURE VARIATION;

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY;

ASTHENOSPHERE; CENOZOIC; CRUSTAL THICKNESS; LITHOSPHERIC STRUCTURE; MOHO; S-WAVE; SEISMIC SURVEY; SEISMIC TOMOGRAPHY; SEISMIC VELOCITY; VOLCANISM;

COLORADO; COLORADO PLATEAU; ROCKY MOUNTAINS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84885168603     PISSN: None     EISSN: 15252027     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/ggge.20143     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. Abt, D. L., K. M. Fischer, S. W. French, H. A. Ford, H. Yuan, and, B. Romanowicz, (2010), North American lithospheric discontinuity structure imaged by Ps and Sp receiver functions, J. Geophys. Res., 115, B09301, doi: 10.1029/2009JB006914.
2. Afonso, J. C., G. Ranalli, and, M. Fernandez, (2005), Thermal expansivity and elastic properties of the lithospheric mantle: Results from mineral physics of composites, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 149 (3), 279-306, doi: 10.1016/j.pepi.2004.10.003. (Pubitemid 40373971)
3. Aki, K., (1957), Space and time spectra of stationary stochastic waves with special reference to microtremors, Bull. Earthquake Res. Inst., 35, 415-456.
4. Aldrich M. J. Jr,., C. E. Chapin, A. W. Laughlin, and, G. R. Keller, (1986), Stress history and tectonic development of the Rio Grande Rift, New Mexico, J. Geophys. Res., 91, 6199-6211.
5. Annen, C., J. D. Blundy, and, R. S. Sparks, (2006), The genesis of intermediate and silica magmas in Deep Crustal Hot Zones, J. Petrol., 47 (3), 505-539. (Pubitemid 43264716)
6. Aster, R. C., B. Borchers, and, C. H. Thurber, (2012), Parameter Estimation and Inverse Problems, 2nd ed., Academic Press, Waltham, Mass.
7. Baig, A. M., M. G. Bostock, and, J.-P. Mercier, (2005), Spectral reconstruction of teleseismic P Green's functions, J. Geophys. Res., 110, B08306, doi: 10.1029/2005JB003625.
8. Bailey, I. W., M. S. Miller, K. Liu, and, A. Levander, (2012), Vs and density structure beneath the Colorado Plateau constrained by gravity anomalies and joint inversions of receiver function and phase velocity data, J. Geophys. Res., 117, B02313, doi: 10.1029/2011JB008522.
9. Baldridge, W. S., G. R. Keller, V. Haak, E. Wendlandt, G. R. Jiracek, and, K. H. Olsen, (1995), The Rio Grande Rift, in Developments in Geotectonics, vol. 25, edited by, K. H. Olsen, pp. 233-275, Elsevier, Amsterdam, doi: 10.1016/S0419-0254(06)80014-5.
10. Beard, B. L., and, C. M. Johnson, (1997), Hafnium isotope evidence for the origin of Cenozoic basaltic lavas from the Southwestern United States, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 20,149-120,178, doi: 10.1029/97JB01731.
11. Bechtel, T. D., D. W. Forsyth, V. L. Sharpton, and, R. A. F. Grieve, (1990), Variations in effective elastic thickness of the North American lithosphere, Nature, 343 (6259), 636-638.
12. Becker, T. W., (2012), On recent seismic tomography for the western United States, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 13, Q01W10, doi: 10.1029/ 2011GC003977.
13. Bennett, V. C., and, D. DePaolo, J., (1987), Proterozoic crustal history of the Western United States as determined by neodymium isotopic mapping; with Suppl. Data 87-30, GSA Bull., 99 (5), 674-685, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1987)99 < 674:PCHOTW>2.0.CO;2.
14. Bensen, G. D., M. H. Ritzwoller, M. P. Barmin, A. L. Levshin, F. Lin, M. P. Moschetti, N. M. Shapiro, and, Y. Yang, (2007), Processing seismic ambient noise data to obtain reliable broad-band surface wave dispersion measurements, Geophys. J. Int., 169 (3), 1239-1260, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03374.x. (Pubitemid 46894904)
15. Berglund, H. T., A. F. Sheehan, M. H. Murray, M. Roy, A. R. Lowry, R. S. Nerem, and, F. Blume, (2012), Distributed deformation across the Rio Grande Rift, Great Plains and Colorado Plateau, Geology, 40 (1), 23-26, doi: 10.1130/G32418.1.
16. Bostock, M. G., (2004), Green's functions, source signatures, and the normalization of teleseismic wave fields, J. Geophys. Res., 109, B03303, doi: 10.1029/2003JB002783.
17. Boyd, O. S., and, A. F. Sheehan, (2005), Attenuation tomography beneath the Rocky Mountain front; implications for the physical state of the upper mantle, in The Rocky Mountain Region-An Evolving Lithosphere: Tectonics, Geochemistry, and Geophysics, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol. 154, edited by, K. E. Kalstrom, and, G. R. Keller, pp. 361-377, AGU, Washington, D. C., doi: 10.1029/154GM27.
18. Brister, B. S., and, R. R. Gries, (1994), Tertiary stratigraphy and tectonic development of the Alamosa Basin (northern San Luis Basin), Rio Grande Rift, south-central Colorado, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Paper, 291, 39-58.
19. Brocher, T. A., (2005), Empirical relations between elastic wavespeeds and density in the earth's crust, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 95 (6), 2081-2092, doi: 10.1785/0120050077.
20. Burov, E. B., and, M. Diament, (1995), The effective elastic thickness (Te) of continental lithosphere: What does it really mean?, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 3905-3927, doi: 10.1029/94JB02770.
21. Cammarano, F., S. Goes, P. Vacher, and, D. Giardini, (2003), Inferring upper-mantle temperatures from seismic velocities, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 138 (3), 197-222, doi: 10.1016/S0031-9201(03)00156-0. (Pubitemid 37307201)
22. Chamberlain, K., (1998), Medicine Bow Orogeny; timing of deformation and model of crustal structure produced during continent-arc collision, ca. 1.78 Ga, southeastern Wyoming, Rocky Mountain Geol., 33 (2), 259-277, doi: 10.2113/33.2.259.
23. Chapin, C. E., (2012), Origin of the Colorado mineral belt, Geosphere, 8 (1), 28-43, doi: 10.1130/ges00694.1.
24. Chapin, C. E., M. Wilks, W. C. McIntosh, S. M. Cather, and, S. A. Kelley, (2004), Space-time patterns of Late Cretaceous to present magmatism in New Mexico; comparison with Andean volcanism and potential for future volcanism, Bull. N. M. Bur. Geol. Miner. Resour. 160, 13-40.
25. Chen, C.-W., S. Rondenay, R. L. Evans, and, D. B. Snyder, (2009), Geophysical detection of relict metasomatism from an Archean (∼3.5 Ga) subduction zone, Science, 326 (5956), 1089-1091, doi: 10.1126/science.1178477.
26. Christensen, N. I., (1996), Poisson's ratio and crustal seismology, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 3139-3156, doi: 10.1029/95JB03446.
27. Christensen, N. I., and, W. D. Mooney, (1995), Seismic velocity structure and composition of the continental crust; a global view, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 9761-9788, doi: 10.1029/95JB00259.
28. Coblentz, D., C. G. Chase, K. E. Karlstrom, and, J. van Wijk, (2011), Topography, the geoid, and compensation mechanisms for the southern Rocky Mountains, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 12, Q04002, doi: 10.1029/2010gc003459.
29. Coney, P. J., and, S. J. Reynolds, (1977), Cordilleran Benioff zones, Nature, 270, 403-406, doi: 10.1038/270403a0.
30. Crosswhite, J. A., and, E. D. Humphreys, (2003), Imaging the mountainless root of the 1.8 Ga Cheyenne belt suture and clues to its tectonic stability, Geology, 31 (8), 669-672, doi: 10.1130/G19552.1. (Pubitemid 37118397)
31. Crow, R., K. Karlstrom, Y. Asmerom, B. Schmandt, V. Polyak, and, S. A. DuFrane, (2011), Shrinking of the Colorado Plateau via lithospheric mantle erosion: Evidence from Nd and Sr isotopes and geochronology of Neogene basalts, Geology, 39 (1), 27-30, doi: 10.1130/g31611.1.
32. Decker, E. R., (1995), Thermal regimes of the Southern Rocky Mountains and Wyoming Basin in Colorado and Wyoming in the United States, Tectonophysics, 244 (1), 85-106, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(94)00219-Y.
33. Drenth, B. J., G. R. Keller, and, R. A. Thompson, (2012), Geophysical study of the San Juan Mountains batholith complex, southwestern Colorado, Geosphere, 8 (3), 669-684, doi: 10.1130/ges00723.1.
34. Ducea, M. N., (2002), Constraints on the bulk composition and root foundering rates of continental arcs: A California arc perspective, J. Geophys. Res., 107 (B11), 2304, doi: 10.1029/2001jb000643.
35. Dueker, K. G., and, A. F. Sheehan, (1997), Mantle discontinuity structure from midpoint stacks of converted P and S waves across the Yellowstone hotspot track, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 8313-8327, doi: 10.1029/96JB03857.
36. Dueker, K., H. Yuan, and, B. Zurek, (2001), Thick-structured Proterozoic lithosphere of the Rocky Mountain region, GSA Today, 11 (12), 4-9. (Pubitemid 34179826)
37. Dziewonski, A. M., and, D. L. Anderson, (1981), Preliminary reference Earth model, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 25 (4), 297-356, doi: 10.1016/0031-9201(81)90046-7.
38. Eaton, G. P., (2008), Epeirogeny in the Southern Rocky Mountains region: Evidence and origin, Geosphere, 4 (5), 408-408, doi: 10.1130/ges00149.1.
39. Ehrenberg, S. N., (1982), Petrogenesis of garnet lherzolite and megacrystalline nodules from the Thumb, Navajo volcanic field, J. Petrol., 23 (4), 507-547, doi: 10.1093/petrology/23.4.507.
40. Ekström, G., G. A. Abers, and, S. C. Webb, (2009), Determination of surface-wave phase velocities across US Array from noise and Aki's spectral formulation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L18301, doi: 10.1029/2009GL039131.
41. Erslev, E. A., (1993), Thrusts, back-thrusts, and detachments of Rocky Mountain foreland arches, in Laramide Basement Deformation in the Rocky Mountain Foreland of the Western United States, edited by, C. J. Schmidt, et al., pp. 339-358, Geol. Soc. of Am. Spec. Paper 280.
42. Farmer, G. L., T. Bailley, and, L. T. Elkins-Tanton, (2008), Mantle source volumes and the origin of the mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up in the southern Rocky Mountains, western US, Lithos, 102 (1), 279-294, doi: 10.1016/j.lithos.2007.08.014.
43. Faul, U. H., J. D. F. Gerald, and, I. Jackson, (2004), Shear wave attenuation and dispersion in melt-bearing olivine polycrystals: 2. Microstructural interpretation and seismological implications, J. Geophys. Res., 109, B06202, doi: 10.1029/2003jb002407.
44. Fischer, K. M., H. A. Ford, D. L. Abt, and, C. A. Rychert, (2010), The lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 38, 551-575, doi: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040809-152438.
45. Foley, S., (1992), Vein-plus-wall-rock melting mechanisms in the lithosphere and the origin of potassic alkaline magmas, Lithos, 28 (3), 435-453, doi: 10.1016/0024-4937(92)900 18-T. (Pubitemid 23387225)
46. Forte, A. M., R. Moucha, N. A. Simmons, S. P. Grand, and, J. X. Mitrovica, (2010), Deep-mantle contributions to the surface dynamics of the North American continent, Tectonophysics, 481 (1), 3-15, doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2009.06.010.
47. Foster, K., K. Dueker, J. McClenahan, S. M. Hansen, B. Schmandt, (2012), A taxonomy of three species of negative velocity arrivals in the lithospheric mantle beneath the United States using Sp receiver functions, paper presented at 2012 Fall Meeting, AGU, San Francisco, Calif.
48. Gibson, S. A., R. N. Thompson, P. T. Leat, M. A. Morrison, G. L. Hendry, A. P. Dickin, and, J. G. Mitchell, (1993), Ultrapotassic magmas along the flanks of the Oligo-Miocene Rio Grande Rift, USA: Monitors of the zone of lithospheric mantle extension and thinning beneath a continental rift, J. Petrol., 34 (1), 187-228, doi: 10.1093/petrology/34.1.187. (Pubitemid 23390116)
49. Gilbert, H., (2012), Crustal structure and signatures of recent tectonism as influenced by ancient terranes in the Western United States, Geosphere, 8 (1), 141-157, doi: 10.1130/GES00720.1.
50. Gilbert, H. J., and, A. F. Sheehan, (2004), Images of crustal variations in the intermountain west, J. Geophys. Res, 109, B03306, doi: 10.1029/2003JB002730.
51. Gilbert, H., A. A. Velasco, and, G. Zandt, (2007), Preservation of Proterozoic terrane boundaries within the Colorado Plateau and implications for its tectonic evolution, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 258, 237-248, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2007.03.034. (Pubitemid 46780112)
52. Goes, S., and, S. van der Lee, (2002), Thermal structure of the North American uppermost mantle inferred from seismic tomography, J. Geophys. Res, 107 (B3), 2050, doi: 10.1029/2000JB000049.
53. Gribb, T. T., and, R. F. Cooper, (2000), The effect of an equilibrated melt phase on the shear creep and attenuation behavior of polycrystalline olivine, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 2341-2344, doi: 10.1029/2000gl011443. (Pubitemid 32040371)
54. Griffin, W. L., S. Y. O'Reilly, J. C. Afonso, and, G. C. Begg, (2009), The composition and evolution of lithospheric mantle; A re-evaluation and its tectonic implications, J. Petrol., 50 (7), 1185-1204, doi: 10.1093/petrology/ egn033.
55. Hager, B. H., and, M. A. Richards, (1989), Long-wavelength variations in Earth's geoid: Physical models and dynamical implications, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A, 328, 309-327.
56. Hammond, W. C., and, E. D. Humphreys, (2000), Upper mantle seismic wave attenuation: Effects of realistic partial melt distribution, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 10,987-10,999, doi: 10.1029/2000JB900042.
57. Hansen, S., and, K. Dueker, (2009), P and S Wave receiver function images of crustal imbrication beneath the Cheyenne Belt in Southeast Wyoming, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 99 (3), 1953-1961, doi: 10.1785/0120080168.
58. Helffrich, G., (2006), Extend-time multitaper frequency domain cross-correlation receiver-function estimation, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 96 (1), 344-347, doi: 10.1785/0120050098. (Pubitemid 43292785)
59. Heller, P. L., K. G. Dueker, and, M. E. McMillan, (2003), Post-Paleozoic alluvial gravel transport as evidence of continental tilting in the U.S. Cordillera, GSA Bull., 115 (9), 1122-1132, doi: 10.1130/B25219.1. (Pubitemid 37216635)
60. Herrmann, R. B., and, C. J. Ammon, (2002), Computer Programs in Seismology, Saint Louis Univ., Mo.
61. Hildreth, W., and, S. Moorbath, (1988), Crustal contributions to arc magmatism in the Andes of central Chile, Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., 98 (4), 455-489, doi: 10.1007/BF00372365.
62. Hirschmann, M. M., (2000), Mantle solidus: Experimental constraints and the effects of peridotite composition, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 1, 1042, doi: 10.1029/2000G C000070.
63. Hier-Majumder, S., and, A. Courtier, (2011), Seismic signature of small melt fraction atop the transition zone, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 308 (3), 334-342, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2011.05.055.
64. Humphreys, E., E. Hessler, K. Dueker, G. L. Farmer, E. Erslev, and, T. Atwater, (2003), How laramide-age hydration of North American Lithosphere by the Farallon Slab controlled subsequent activity in the Western United States, Int. Geol. Rev., 45 (7), 575-595, doi: 10.2747/0020-6814.45.7.575. (Pubitemid 37240872)
65. Ingersoll, R. V., (2001), Structural and stratigraphic evolution of the Rio Grande Rift, northern New Mexico and southern Colorado, Int. Geol. Rev., 43 (10), 867-891, doi: 10.1080/00206810109465053. (Pubitemid 34315999)
66. Jackson, I., and, U. H. Faul, (2010), Grainsize-sensitive viscoelastic relaxation in olivine: Towards a robust laboratory-based model for seismological application, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 183 (1), 151-163, doi: 10.1016/j.pepi.2010.09.005.
67. Johnson, C. M., (1991), Large-scale crust formation and lithosphere modification beneath middle to late Cenozoic calderas and volcanic fields, western North America, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 13,485-13,507, doi: 10.1029/91JB00304.
68. Jones, C. H., G. L. Farmer, B. Sageman, and, S. Zhong, (2011), Hydrodynamic mechanism for the Laramide orogeny, Geosphere, 7 (1), 183-201, doi: 10.1130/GES00575.1.
69. Jull, M., and, P. B. Kelemen, (2001), On the conditions for lower crustal convective instability, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 6423-6446, doi: 10.1029/2000JB900357.
70. Karato, S., (1993), Importance of anelasticity in the interpretation of seismic tomography, Geophys. Res. Lett., 20, 1623-1626, doi: 10.1029/93GL01767. (Pubitemid 24418957)
71. Karato, S.-I., (2012), On the origin of the asthenosphere, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 321, 95-103, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2012.01.001.
72. Karlstrom, K. E., and, R. S. Houston, (1984), The Cheyenne belt: Analysis of a Proterozoic suture in southern Wyoming, Precambrian Res., 25, 415-446, doi: 10.1016/0301-9268(84)90012-3.
73. Karlstrom, K., E., and, E. Humphreys, D., (1998), Persistent influence of Proterozoic accretionary boundaries in the tectonic evolution of southwestern North America; interaction of cratonic grain and mantle modification events, Rocky Mountain Geol., 33, 161-179, doi: 10.2113/33.2.161.
74. Karlstrom, K. E., S. J. Whitmeyer, K. Dueker, M. L. Williams, S. A. Bowring, A. R. Levander, E. D. Humphreys, and, G. R. Keller, (2005), Synthesis of results from the CD-ROM Experiment: 4-D image of the lithosphere beneath the Rocky Mountains and implications for understanding the evolution of continental lithosphere, in The Rocky Mountain Region-An Evolving Lithosphere: Tectonics, Geochemistry, and Geophysics, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol. 154, edited by, K. E. Kalstrom, and, G. R. Keller, pp. 421-441, AGU, Washington, D. C., doi: 10.1029/154GM31.
75. Karlstrom, K. E., et al. (2012), Mantle-driven dynamic uplift of the Rocky Mountains and Colorado Plateau and its surface response: Toward a unified hypothesis, Lithosphere, 4 (1), 3-22, doi: 10.1130/L150.1.
76. Kay, R. W., and, S. M. Kay, (1991), Creation and destruction of lower continental crust, Geol. Rundsch., 80 (2), 259-278, doi: 10.1007/BF01829365.
77. Keller, G. R., M. A. Khan, P. Morgan, R. F. Wendlandt, W. S. Baldridge, K. H. Olsen, C. Prodehl, and, L. W. Braile, (1991), A comparative study of the Rio Grande and Kenya rifts, Tectonophysics, 197 (2), 355-371, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(91)90050-3.
78. Keller, G. R., et al. (2006), A community effort to construct a gravity database for the United States and an associated Web portal, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Paper, 397, 21-34.
79. Kennett, B. L. N., E. R. Engdahl, and, R. Buland, (1995), Constraints on seismic velocities in the Earth from traveltimes, Geophys. J. Int., 122 (1), 108-124, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.1995.tb03540.x.
80. Kind, R., X. Yuan, and, P. Kumar, (2012), Seismic receiver functions and the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary, Tectonophysics, 536-537, 25-43, doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2012.03.005.
81. Kluth, C. F., and, P. J. Coney, (1981), Plate-tectonics of the Ancestral Rocky Mountains, Geology, 9 (1), 10-15, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9 <10:ptotar>2.0.co;2.
82. Kreutzmann, A., H. Schmeling, A. Junge, T. Ruedas, G. Marquart, and, I. T. Bjarnason, (2004), Temperature and melting of a ridge-centred plume with application to Iceland. Part II. Predictions for electromagnetic and seismic observables, Geophys. J. Int., 159 (3), 1097-1111, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X. 2004.02397.x. (Pubitemid 39660982)
83. Kumar, P., R. Kind, X. Yuan, and, J. Mechie, (2012), US Array receiver function images of the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary, Seismol. Res. Lett., 83 (3), 486-491, doi: 10.1785/gssrl.83.3.486.
84. Landman, R. L., and, R. M. Flowers, (2013), (U-Th)/He thermochronologic constraints on the evolution of the northern Rio Grande Rift, Gore Range, Colorado and implications for rift propagation models, Geosphere, 9 (1), 170-187, doi: 10.1130/GES00826.1.
85. Laughlin, A. W., M. J. Aldrich, M. Shafiqullah, and, J. Husler, (1986), Tectonic implications of the age, composition, and orientation of lamprophyre dikes, Navajo volcanic field, Arizona, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 76 (3), 361-374, doi: 10.1016/0012-821X(86)90087-7.
86. Leat, P. T., R. N. Thompson, A. N. Dickin, M. A. Morrison, and, G. L. Hendry, (1989), Quaternary volcanism in northwestern Colorado; implications for the roles of asthenosphere and lithosphere in the genesis of continental basalts, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 37 (3), 291-310, doi: 10.1016/0377- 0273(89)90085-1.
87. Leat, P. T., A. P. Dickin, R. N. Thompson, M. A. Morrison, and, G. L. Hendry, (1990), Geochemistry of mafic lavas in the early Rio Grande Rift, Yarmony Mountain, Colorado, USA, Chem. Geol. 81 (1), 23-43, doi: 10.1016/0009-2541(90)90037-8.
88. Leat, P. T., R. N. Thompson, M. A. Morrison, G. L. Hendry, and, A. P. Dickin, (1991), Alkaline hybrid mafic magmas of the Yampa area, NW Colorado, and their relationship to the Yellowstone mantle plume and lithospheric mantle domains, Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., 107 (3), 310-327, doi: 10.1007/BF00325101.
89. Lee, D.-K., and, S. P. Grand, (1996), Upper mantle shear structure beneath the Colorado Rocky Mountains, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 22,233-22,244, doi: 10.1029/96JB01502.
90. Leonard, E. M., (2002), Geomorphic and tectonic forcing of late Cenozoic warping of the Colorado piedmont, Geology, 30 (7), 595-598, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030 <0595: gatfol>2.0.co;2.
91. Lester, A., and, G. L. Farmer, (1998), Lower crustal and upper mantle xenoliths along the Cheyenne Belt and vicinity, Rocky Mountain Geol., 33 (2), 293-304, doi: 10.2113/33.2.293.
92. Levander, A., and, M. S. Miller, (2012), Evolutionary aspects of lithosphere discontinuity structure in the western U.S., Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 13, Q0AK07, doi: 10.1029/2012GC004056.
93. Li, A., D. W. Forsyth, and, K. M. Fischer, (2002), Evidence for shallow isostatic compensation of the southern Rocky Mountains from Rayleigh wave tomography, Geology, 30 (8), 683-686, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030 <0683: EFSICO>2.0.CO;2.
94. Ligorria, J. P., and, C. J. Ammon, (1999), Iterative deconvolution and receiver-function estimation, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 89 (5), 1395-1400. (Pubitemid 30135069)
95. Lin, F.-C., and, M. H. Ritzwoller, (2011), Helmholtz surface wave tomography for isotropic and azimuthally anisotropic structure, Geophys. J. Int., 186 (3), 1104-1120, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2011.05070.x.
96. Lin, F.-C., B. Schmandt, and, V. C. Tsai, (2012), Joint inversion of Rayleigh wave phase velocity and ellipticity using US Array: Constraining velocity and density structure in the upper crust, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L12303, doi: 10.1029/2012GL052196.
97. Lipman, P. W., (2007), Incremental assembly and prolonged consolidation of Cordilleran magma chambers: Evidence from the Southern Rocky Mountain volcanic field, Geosphere, 3 (1), 42-70, doi: 10.1130/ges00061.1.
98. Liu, L., and, M. Gurnis, (2010), Dynamic subsidence and uplift of the Colorado Plateau, Geology, 38 (7), 663-666, doi: 10.1130/g30624.1.
99. Lowry, A. R., and, M. Perez-Gussinye, (2011), The role of crustal quartz in controlling Cordilleran deformation, Nature, 471 (7338), 353-357, doi: 10.1038/nature09912.
100. Lowry, A. R., N. M. Ribe, and, R. B. Smith, (2000), Dynamic elevation of the Cordillera, western United States, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 23,371-323,390, doi: 10.1029/2000JB900182.
101. MacCarthy, J. R., (2011), Lithospheric structure beneath the southern Rocky Mountains and support for high elevations, PhD thesis, N. M. Inst. of Mining and Technol., Socorro, N. M.
102. Magnani, M. B., K. C. Miller, A. Levander, and, K. Karlstrom, (2004), The Yavapai-Mazatzal boundary; a long-lived tectonic element in the lithosphere of southwestern North America, GSA Bull., 116, 1137-1142, doi: 10.1130/B25414.1. (Pubitemid 39306385)
103. McCallum, M. E., C. D. Mabarak, and, H. G. Coopersmith, (1979), Diamonds from Omberlites in the Colorado-Wyoming state line district, in Kimberlites, Diatremes, and Diamonds: Their Geology, Petrology, and Geochemistry, edited by, F. R. Boyd, and, H.O.A. Meyer, pp. 42-58, AGU, Washington, D. C.
104. McKenzie, D., (1989), Some remarks on the movement of small melt fractions in the mantle, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 95 (1), 53-72, doi: 10.1016/0012-821X(89)90167-2.
105. McMillan, M. E., C. L. Angevine, and, P. L. Heller, (2002), Postdepositional tilt of the Miocene-Pliocene Ogallala group on the western Great Plains: Evidence of late Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains, Geology, 30 (1), 63-66, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030 <0063:PTOTMP>2.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 35016094)
106. McMillan, M. E., P. L. Heller, and, S. L. Wing, (2006), History and causes of post-Laramide relief in the Rocky Mountain orogenic plateau, GSA Bull., 118, 393-405, doi: 10.1130/b25715.1.
107. Mercier, J. P., M. Bostock, and, A. M. Baig, (2006), Improved Green's functions for passive source structural studies, Geophysics, 71 (4), SI95-SI102, doi: 10.1190/1.2213951. (Pubitemid 44295550)
108. Morozova, E. A., X. Wan, K. R. Chamberlain, S. B. Smithson, R. Johnson, and, K. E. Karlstrom, (2005), Inter-wedging nature of the Cheyenne belt: Archean-Proterozoic suture defined by seismic reflection data, in The Rocky Mountain Region-An Evolving Lithosphere: Tectonics, Geochemistry, and Geophysics, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol. 154, edited by, K. E. Kalstrom, and, G. R. Keller, pp. 217-226, AGU, Washington, D. C., doi: 10.1029/154GM15.
109. Moucha, R., A. M. Forte, D. B. Rowley, J. X. Mitrovica, N. A. Simmons, and, S. P. Grand, (2008), Mantle convection and the recent evolution of the Colorado Plateau and the Rio Grande Rift valley, Geology, 36 (6), 439-442, doi: 10.1130/g24577a.1. (Pubitemid 351903352)
110. Nagy, D., G. Papp, and, J. Benedek, (2000), The gravitational potential and its derivatives for the prism, J. Geod., 74, 552-560, 10.1007/s001900000116. (Pubitemid 32012275)
111. Obrebski, M., R. M. Allen, F. Pollitz, and, S.-H. Hung, (2011), Lithosphere-asthenosphere interaction beneath the western United States from the joint inversion of body-wave traveltimes and surface-wave phase velocities, Geophys. J. Int., 185 (2), 1003-1021, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2011.04 990.x.
112. Penn, B. S., and, D. A. Lindsey, (2009), 40Ar/ 39Ar dates for the Spanish Peaks intrusions in south-central Colorado, Rocky Mountain Geol., 44 (1), 17-32.
113. Putirka, K., (2008), Excess temperatures at ocean islands; implications for mantle layering and convection, Geology, 36 (4), 283-286, doi: 10.1130/G24615A.1. (Pubitemid 351753220)
114. Rau, C. J., and, D. W. Forsyth, (2011), Melt in the mantle beneath the amagmatic zone, southern Nevada, Geology, 39 (10), 975-978, doi: 10.1130/g32179.1.
115. Reed, J. C. Jr,., M.E. Bickford, W. R. Premo, J. N. Aleinikokk, and, J. S. Pallister, (1987), Evolution of the Early Proterozoic Colorado province: Constraints from U-Pb geochronology, Geology, 15 (9), 861-865, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<861:EOTEPC>2.0.CO;2.
116. Reiter, M., (2008), Geothermal anomalies in the crust and upper mantle along Southern Rocky Mountain transitions, GSA Bull., 120, 431-441, doi: 10.1130/B26198.1. (Pubitemid 351756648)
117. Riihimaki, C. A., R. S. Anderson, and, E. B. Safran, (2007), Impact of rock uplift on rates of late Cenozoic Rocky Mountain river incision, J. Geophys. Res., 112, F03S02, doi: 10.1029/2006JF000557.
118. Riter, J. C. A., and, D. Smith, (1996), Xenolith constraints on the thermal history of the mantle below the Colorado Plateau, Geology, 24 (3), 267-270, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024 <0267:xcotth>2.3.co;2.
119. Roy, M., S. Kelley, F. J. Pazzaglia, S. Cather, and, M. A. House, (2004), Middle Tertiary buoyancy modification and its relationship to rock exhumation, cooling, and subsequent extension at the eastern margin of the Colorado Plateau, Geology, 32 (10), 925-928, doi: 10.1130/G20561.1. (Pubitemid 39447938)
120. Rychert, C. A., K. M. Fischer, and, S. Rondenay, (2005), A sharp lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary imaged beneath eastern North America, Nature, 436 (7050), 542-545, doi: 10.1038/nature03904. (Pubitemid 41112925)
121. Rychert, C. A., S. Rondenay, and, K. M. Fischer, (2007), P-to-S and S-to-P imaging of a sharp lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary beneath eastern North America, J. Geophys. Res., 112, B08314, doi: 10.1029/2006JB004619.
122. Rychert, C. A., P. M. Shearer, and, K. M. Fischer, (2010), Scattered wave imaging of the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary, Lithos, 120 (1), 173-185, doi: 10.1016/j.lithos.2009.12.006.
123. Satsukawa, T., K. Michibayashi, E. Y. Anthony, R. J. Stern, S. S. Gao, and, K. H. Liu, (2011), Seismic anisotropy of the uppermost mantle beneath the Rio Grande rift: Evidence from Kilbourne Hole peridotite xenoliths, New Mexico, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 311, 172-181, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2011.09.013.
124. Schmandt, B., and, E. Humphreys, (2010), Complex subduction and small-scale convection revealed by body-wave tomography of the western United States upper mantle, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 297 (3), 435-445, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2010.06.047.
125. Schutt, D. L., and, C. E. Lesher, (2006), Effects of melt depletion on the density and seismic velocity of garnet and spinel lherzolite, J. Geophys. Res, 111, B05401, doi: 10.1029/2003jb002950.
126. Shapiro, N. M., and, M. Campillo, (2004), Emergence of broadband Rayleigh waves from correlations of the ambient seismic noise, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L07614, doi: 10.1029/2004GL019491.
127. Shaw, C. A., and, K. E. Karlstrom, (1999), The Yavapai-Mazatzal crustal boundary in the Southern Rocky Mountains, Rocky Mountain Geol., 34 (1), 37-52, doi: 10.2113/34.1.37.
128. Sheehan, A. F., G. A. Abers, C. H. Jones, and, A. L. Lerner-Lam, (1995), Crustal thickness variations across the Colorado Rocky Mountains from teleseismic receiver functions, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 20,391-320,404, doi: 10.1029/95JB01966.
129. Shen, W., M. H. Ritzwoller, and, V. Schulte-Pelkum, (2013), A 3-D model of the crust and uppermost mantle beneath the central and western US by joint inversion of receiver functions and surface wave dispersion, J. Geophys. Res., 118 (1), 262-272, doi: 10.1029/2012JB009602.
130. Smith, D., (2010), Antigorite peridotite, metaserpentinite, and other inclusions within diatremes on the Colorado Plateau, SW USA: implications for the mantle wedge during low-angle subduction, J. Petrol., 51 (6), 1355-1379, doi: 10.1093/petrology/egq022.
131. Snelson, C. M., T. J. Henstock, G. R. Keller, K. C. Miller, and, A. Levander, (1998), Crustal and uppermost mantle structure along the Deep Probe seismic profile, Rocky Mountain Geol., 33 (2), 181-198, doi: 10.2113/33.2.181.
132. Stachnik, J. C., (2010), Seismic imaging of crust and upper mantle structure in western North America via surface wave inversion and wavefield depropagation, PhD thesis, Univ. of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo.
133. Stachnik, J. C., K. Dueker, D. L. Schutt, and, H. Yuan, (2008), Imaging Yellowstone plume-lithosphere interactions from inversion of ballistic and diffusive Rayleigh wave dispersion and crustal thickness data, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 9, Q06004, doi: 10.1029/2008GC001992.
134. Stixrude, L., and, C. Lithgow-Bertelloni, (2005), Mineralogy and elasticity of the oceanic upper mantle: Origin of the low-velocity zone, J. Geophys. Res, 110, B03204, doi: 10.1029/2004jb002965.
135. Takei, Y., (2000), Acoustic properties of partially molten media studied on a simple binary system with a controllable dihedral angle, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 16,665-16,682, doi: 10.1029/2000JB900124.
136. Thompson, R. N., P. T. Leat, A. P. Dickin, M. A. Morrison, G. L. Hendry, and, S. A. Gibson, (1990), Strongly potassic mafic magmas from lithospheric mantle sources during continental extension and heating; evidence from Miocene minettes of Northwest Colorado, U.S.A, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 98 (2), 139-153, doi: 10.1016/0012-821X(90)90055-3.
137. Thompson, R. N., D. Velde, P. T. Leat, M. A. Morrison, J. G. Mitchell, A. P. Dickin, and, S. A. Gibson, (1997), Oligocene lamproite containing an Al-poor, Ti-rich biotite, Middle Park, Northwest Colorado, USA, Minera. Mag., 61 (4), 557-572.
138. Turcotte, D. L., and, G. Schubert, (2002), Geodynamics, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U. K.
139. Tweto, O., (1979), The Rio Grande rift system in Colorado, in Rio Grande Rift: Tectonics and Magmatism, edited by, R. E. Riecker, pp. 33-56, AGU, Washington, D. C.
140. Tweto, O., and, P. K. Sims, (1963), Precambrian ancestry of the Colorado mineral belt, GSA Bull., 74 (8), 991-1014, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1963)74[991: PAOTCM]2.0.CO;2.
141. VanDecar, J. C., and, R. S. Crossen, (1990), Determination of teleseismic relative phase velocity arrival times using multi-channel cross-correlation and least squares, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 80 (1), 150-169.
142. van Wijk, J. W., W. S. Baldridge, J. van Hunen, S. Goes, R. Aster, D. D. Coblentz, S. P. Grand, and, J. Ni, (2010), Small-scale convection at the edge of the Colorado Plateau; implications for topography, magmatism, and evolution of Proterozoic lithosphere, Geology, 38 (7), 611-614, doi: 10.1130/G31031.1.
143. Wannamaker, P. E., et al. (2008), Lithospheric dismemberment and magmatic processes of the Great Basin-Colorado Plateau transition, Utah, implied from magnetotellurics, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 9, Q05019, doi: 10.1029/2007gc001886.
144. Watts, A. B., (2001), Isostasy and Flexure of the Lithosphere, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U. K.
145. West, M., J. Ni, W. S. Baldridge, D. Wilson, R. Aster, W. Gao, and, S. Grand, (2004), Crust and upper mantle shear-wave structure of the Southwest United States: Implications for rifting and support for high elevation, J. Geophys. Res., 109, B03309, doi: 10.1029/2003JB002575.
146. Whitmeyer, S. J., and, K. E. Karlstrom, (2007), Tectonic model for the Proterozoic growth of North America, Geosphere, 3 (4), 220-259, doi: 10.1130/ges00055.1.
147. Wilson, D. C., D. A. Angus, J. F. Ni, and, S. P. Grand, (2006), Constraints on the interpretation of S-to-P receiver functions, Geophys. J. Int., 165 (3), 969-980, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.02981.x. (Pubitemid 44056652)
148. Wölbern, I., G. Rümpker, K. Link, and, F. Sodoudi, (2012), Melt infiltration of the lower lithosphere beneath the Tanzania craton and the Albertine rift inferred from S receiver functions, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 13, Q0AK08, doi: 10.1029/2012GC004167.
149. Yang, Y., D. W. Forsyth, and, D. S. Weeraratne, (2007), Seismic attenuation near the East Pacific Rise and the origin of the low-velocity zone, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 258 (1), 260-268, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2007.03.040. (Pubitemid 46780114)
150. Yuan, X., R. Kind, X. Li, and, R. Wang, (2006), The S receiver functions;
151. Yuan, H., B. Romanowicz, K. M. Fischer, and, D. Abt, (2011), 3-D shear wave radially and azimuthally anisotropic velocity model of the North American upper mantle, Geophys. J. Int., 184 (3), 1237-1260, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X. 2010.04901.x.
152. Zhu, L. P., and, H. Kanamori, (2000), Moho depth variation in southern California from teleseismic receiver functions, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 2969-2980, doi: 10.1029/1999JB90 0322.
153. Zoback, M. L., and, W. D. Mooney, (2003), Lithospheric buoyancy and continental intraplate stresses, Int. Geol. Rev., 45 (2), 95-118, doi: 10.2747/0020-6814.45.2.95. (Pubitemid 36947309)