Dissociative part-dependent biopsychosocial reactions to backward masked angry and neutral faces: An fMRI study of dissociative identity disorder

NeuroImage: Clinical

Volumn 3, Issue , 2013, Pages 54-64

  Schlumpf, Yolanda R ^a   Nijenhuis, Ellert R S ^b   Chalavi, Sima ^c   Weder, Ekaterina V ^d   Zimmermann, Eva ^e   Luechinger, Roger ^f   La Marca, Roberto ^a   Reinders, A A T Simone ^c,g   Jäncke, Lutz ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH   (Switzerland)

^b Top Referent Trauma Center Mental Health Care Drenthe   (Netherlands)

^c UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER GRONINGEN   (Netherlands)

^d Fribourg General Hospital ^*

^e Fribourg Hospital   (Switzerland)

^f ETH ZURICH   (Switzerland)

^g KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Backward masking; Dissociative identity disorder; Emotional ambiguity; Face perception; Hypervigilance; Neuroimaging

Indexed keywords

ANXIETY; ARTICLE; BRAIN STEM; CLINICAL ARTICLE; CONTROLLED STUDY; FACE; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; FUSIFORM GYRUS; HUMAN; MULTIPLE PERSONALITY; OCCIPITAL CORTEX; PARAHIPPOCAMPAL GYRUS; PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOMETRY; REACTION TIME; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; STATISTICAL ANALYSIS; TEMPORAL GYRUS;

EID: 84881278822     PISSN: None     EISSN: 22131582     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2013.07.002     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. D.G. Amaral, J.L. Price, A. Pitkanen, and S.T. Carmichael Anatomical organization of primate amygdaloid complex W. Aggleton, The Amygdala: Neurobiological Aspects of Emotion, Memory and Mental Dysfunction 1992 Wiley-Liss New York 1 66
2. American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV 4th ed. 1994 American Psychiatric Association Washington, DC
3. J.L. Armony, V. Corbo, M.H. Clement, and A. Brunet Amygdala response in patients with acute PTSD to masked and unmasked emotional facial expressions The American Journal of Psychiatry 162 2005 1961 1963 (Pubitemid 41428628)
4. J. Ashburner, and K.J. Friston Unified segmentation NeuroImage 26 2005 839 851 (Pubitemid 40825026)
5. P. Bakvis, K. Roelofs, J. Kuyk, P.M. Edelbroek, W.A. Swinkels, and P. Spinhoven Trauma, stress, and preconscious threat processing in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures Epilepsia 50 2009 1001 1011
6. T. Baumgartner, M. Willi, and L. Jancke Modulation of corticospinal activity by strong emotions evoked by pictures and classical music: a transcranial magnetic stimulation study Neuroreport 18 2007 261 265
7. L.S. Benjamin Interpersonal Diagnosis and Treatment of Personality Disorders 2nd ed. 1993 Guilford New York
8. S.J. Bishop Neurocognitive mechanisms of anxiety: an integrative account Trends in Cognitive Sciences 11 2007 307 316 (Pubitemid 46962335)
9. J.U. Blackford, J.W. Buckholtz, S.N. Avery, and D.H. Zald A unique role for the human amygdala in novelty detection NeuroImage 50 2010 1188 1193
10. H.C. Breiter, N.L. Etcoff, P.J. Whalen, W.A. Kennedy, S.L. Rauch, R.L. Buckner, M.M. Strauss, S.E. Hyman, and B.R. Rosen Response and habituation of the human amygdala during visual processing of facial expression Neuron 17 1996 875 887 (Pubitemid 26424015)
11. J.D. Bremner, M. Narayan, L.H. Staib, S.M. Southwick, T. McGlashan, and D.S. Charney Neural correlates of memories of childhood sexual abuse in women with and without posttraumatic stress disorder The American Journal of Psychiatry 156 1999 1787 1795 (Pubitemid 29517573)
12. J.D. Bremner, L.H. Staib, D. Kaloupek, S.M. Southwick, R. Soufer, and D.S. Charney Neural correlates of exposure to traumatic pictures and sound in Vietnam combat veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder: a positron emission tomography study Biological Psychiatry 45 1999 806 816 (Pubitemid 29185471)
13. A.B. Brühl, M. Rufer, A. Delsignore, T. Kaffenberger, L. Jancke, and U. Herwig Neural correlates of altered general emotion processing in social anxiety disorder Brain Research 1378 2011 72 83
14. C. Büchel, J. Morris, R.J. Dolan, and K.J. Friston Brain systems mediating aversive conditioning: an event-related fMRI study Neuron 20 1998 947 957 (Pubitemid 28247400)
15. J. Cheesman, and P.M. Merikle Priming with and without awareness Perception & Psychophysics 36 1984 387 395
16. J.M. Cisler, and E.H. Koster Mechanisms of attentional biases towards threat in anxiety disorders: an integrative review Clinical Psychology Review 30 2010 203 216
17. C.J. Dalenberg, B.L. Brand, D.H. Gleaves, M.J. Dorahy, R.J. Loewenstein, E. Cardena, P.A. Frewen, E.B. Carlson, and D. Spiegel Evaluation of the evidence for the trauma and fantasy models of dissociation Psychological Bulletin 138 2012 550 588
18. M. Davis, and P.J. Whalen The amygdala: vigilance and emotion Molecular Psychiatry 6 2001 13 34 (Pubitemid 32096061)
19. R.S. Desikan, F. Segonne, B. Fischl, B.T. Quinn, B.C. Dickerson, D. Blacker, R.L. Buckner, A.M. Dale, R.P. Maguire, B.T. Hyman, M.S. Albert, and R.J. Killiany An automated labeling system for subdividing the human cerebral cortex on MRI scans into gyral based regions of interest NeuroImage 31 2006 968 980 (Pubitemid 44183792)
20. T.H. Diseth Dissociation following traumatic medical treatment procedures in childhood: a longitudinal follow-up Development and Psychopathology 18 2006 233 251 (Pubitemid 43362224)
21. N.H. Donegan, C.A. Sanislow, H.P. Blumberg, R.K. Fulbright, C. Lacadie, P. Skudlarski, J.C. Gore, I.R. Olson, T.H. McGlashan, and B.E. Wexler Amygdala hyperreactivity in borderline personality disorder: implications for emotional dysregulation Biological Psychiatry 54 2003 1284 1293 (Pubitemid 37464873)
22. L. Dutra, J.F. Bureau, B. Holmes, A. Lyubchik, and K. Lyons-Ruth Quality of early care and childhood trauma: a prospective study of developmental pathways to dissociation The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 197 2009 383 390
23. A. Ehlers, R. Steil, H. Winter, and E.B. Foa Deutsche Übersetzung der Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PDS) 1996 University, Warneford Hospital Oxford
24. J.W. Ellason, C.A. Ross, and D.L. Fuchs Lifetime axis I and II comorbidity and childhood trauma history in dissociative identity disorder Psychiatry 59 1996 255 266 (Pubitemid 26359017)
25. M.W. Eysenck, K. Mogg, J. May, A. Richards, and A. Mathews Bias in interpretation of ambiguous sentences related to threat in anxiety Journal of Abnormal Psychology 100 1991 144 150
26. K. Felmingham, A.H. Kemp, L. Williams, E. Falconer, G. Olivieri, A. Peduto, and R. Bryant Dissociative responses to conscious and non-conscious fear impact underlying brain function in post-traumatic stress disorder Psychological Medicine 38 2008 1771 1780
27. G.R. Fink, H.J. Markowitsch, M. Reinkemeier, T. Bruckbauer, J. Kessler, and W.D. Heiss Cerebral representation of one's own past: neural networks involved in autobiographical memory Journal of Neuroscience 16 1996 4275 4282 (Pubitemid 26192422)
28. H. Fischer, C.I. Wright, P.J. Whalen, S.C. McInerney, L.M. Shin, and S.L. Rauch Brain habituation during repeated exposure to fearful and neutral faces: a functional MRI study Brain Research Bulletin 59 2003 387 392 (Pubitemid 36042833)
29. K.J. Friston, K.J. Worsley, R.S.J. Frackowiak, J.C. Mazziotta, and A.C. Evans Assessing the significance of focal activations using their spatial extent Human Brain Mapping 1 1994 210 220
30. K.J. Friston, A. Holmes, J.B. Poline, C.J. Price, and C.D. Frith Detecting activations in PET and fMRI: levels of inference and power NeuroImage 4 1996 223 235
31. P. Fusar-Poli, A. Placentino, F. Carletti, P. Landi, P. Allen, S. Surguladze, F. Benedetti, M. Abbamonte, R. Gasparotti, F. Barale, J. Perez, P. McGuire, and P. Politi Functional atlas of emotional faces processing: a voxel-based meta-analysis of 105 functional magnetic resonance imaging studies Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience 34 2009 418 432
32. U. Gast, A. Hofmann, T. Oswald, and F. Zündorf Das Strukturierte Klinische Interview für DSM-IV Dissoziative Störungen (SKID-D) Deutsche Fassung. Manual und Interviewheft 2000 Hogrefe Göttingen
33. T. Giesbrecht, S.J. Lynn, S.O. Lilienfeld, and H. Merckelbach Cognitive processes in dissociation: an analysis of core theoretical assumptions Psychological Bulletin 134 2008 617 647
34. M.L. Gorno-Tempini, S. Pradelli, M. Serafini, G. Pagnoni, P. Baraldi, C. Porro, R. Nicoletti, C. Umita, and P. Nichelli Explicit and incidental facial expression processing: an fMRI study NeuroImage 14 2001 465 473 (Pubitemid 32709560)
35. A.G. Greenwald, S.C. Draine, and R.L. Abrams Semantic activation without conscious identification in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and visual masking: a survey and appraisal Science 273 1996 1699 1702
36. C. Grillon, S. Lissek, S. Rabin, D. McDowell, S. Dvir, and D.S. Pine Increased anxiety during anticipation of unpredictable but not predictable aversive stimuli as a psychophysiologic marker of panic disorder The American Journal of Psychiatry 165 2008 898 904 (Pubitemid 351948722)
37. G. Hajcak, C. Molnar, M.S. George, K. Bolger, J. Koola, and Z. Nahas Emotion facilitates action: a transcranial magnetic stimulation study of motor cortex excitability during picture viewing Psychophysiology 44 2007 91 97 (Pubitemid 46103571)
38. M. Hautzinger, F. Keller, and C. Kühner Beck Depressions-Inventar (BDI-II) Revision 2006 Harcourt Test Services Frankfurt a. M.
39. J.V. Haxby, E.A. Hoffman, and M.I. Gobbini The distributed human neural system for face perception Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 2000 223 233 (Pubitemid 30332148)
40. T. Hendler, P. Rotshtein, Y. Yeshurun, T. Weizmann, I. Kahn, D. Ben-Bashat, R. Malach, and A. Bleich Sensing the invisible: differential sensitivity of visual cortex and amygdala to traumatic context NeuroImage 19 2003 587 600 (Pubitemid 36918205)
41. K. Henke, T. Landis, and H.J. Markowitsch Subliminal perception of words and faces International Journal of Neuroscience 75 1994 181 187
42. K. Henke, C.R. Mondadori, V. Treyer, R.M. Nitsch, A. Buck, and C. Hock Nonconscious formation and reactivation of semantic associations by way of the medial temporal lobe Neuropsychologia 41 2003 863 876 (Pubitemid 36349379)
43. K. Henke, V. Treyer, E.T. Nagy, S. Kneifel, M. Dursteler, R.M. Nitsch, and A. Buck Active hippocampus during nonconscious memories Consciousness and Cognition 12 2003 31 48 (Pubitemid 36293347)
44. E.J. Hermans, E.R. Nijenhuis, J. Van Honk, R.J. Huntjens, and O. Van der Hart Identity state-dependent attentional bias for facial threat in dissociative identity disorder Psychiatry Research 141 2006 233 236
45. R.M. Holaway, R.G. Heimberg, and M.E. Coles A comparison of intolerance of uncertainty in analogue obsessive-compulsive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder Journal of Anxiety Disorders 20 2006 158 174 (Pubitemid 43197800)
46. D. Holender Semantic activation without conscious identification in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and visual masking: a survey and appraisal The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9 1986 1 23
47. B.E. Jones Arousal systems Frontiers in Bioscience 8 2003 s438 s451
48. W.M. Kelley, C.N. Macrae, C.L. Wyland, S. Caglar, S. Inati, and T.F. Heatherton Finding the self? An event-related fMRI study Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 14 2002 785 794 (Pubitemid 34761799)
49. S. Korol Familial and social support as protective factors against the development of dissociative identity disorder Journal of Trauma & Dissociation 9 2008 249 267
50. R.A. Lanius, P.C. Williamson, M. Densmore, K. Boksman, M.A. Gupta, R.W. Neufeld, J.S. Gati, and R.S. Menon Neural correlates of traumatic memories in posttraumatic stress disorder: a functional MRI investigation The American Journal of Psychiatry 158 2001 1920 1922 (Pubitemid 33054790)
51. R.A. Lanius, P.C. Williamson, K. Boksman, M. Densmore, M. Gupta, R.W. Neufeld, J.S. Gati, and R.S. Menon Brain activation during script-driven imagery induced dissociative responses in PTSD: a functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation Biological Psychiatry 52 2002 305 311 (Pubitemid 35245969)
52. R.A. Lanius, R. Bluhm, U. Lanius, and C. Pain A review of neuroimaging studies in PTSD: heterogeneity of response to symptom provocation Journal of Psychiatric Research 40 2006 709 729 (Pubitemid 44486243)
53. L. Laux, P. Glanzmann, P. Schaffner, and C.D. Spielberger Das State-Trait-Angstinventar Theoretische Grundlagen und Handanweisung 1981 Beltz Test GmbH Weinheim
54. J.E. LeDoux The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life 1998 Touchstone New York
55. S.O. Lilienfeld, S.J. Lynn, I. Kirsch, J.F. Chaves, T.R. Sarbin, G.K. Ganaway, and R.A. Powell Dissociative identity disorder and the sociocognitive model: recalling the lessons of the past Psychological Bulletin 125 1999 507 523
56. M.M. Linehan Cognitive-behavioral Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder 1993 Guilford Press New York, N.Y.
57. D. Lundquist, A. Flykt, and A. Öhman The Karolinska Directed Emotional Faces - KDEF, CD ROM from Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Psychology section, Karolinska Institute 1998 91-630-7164-9
58. H. Merckelbach, and P. Muris The causal link between self-reported trauma and dissociation: a critical review Behaviour Research and Therapy 39 2001 245 254
59. H. Merckelbach, G.J. Devilly, and E. Rassin Alters in dissociative identity disorder. Metaphors or genuine entities? Clinical Psychology Review 22 2002 481 497 (Pubitemid 34462890)
60. H. Merskey The manufacture of personalities. The production of multiple personality disorder The British Journal of Psychiatry 160 1992 327 340
61. J. Mesman, M.H. Van IJzendoorn, and M.J. Bakermans-Kranenburg The many faces of the Still-Face Paradigm: a review and meta-analysis Developmental Review 29 2009 120 162
62. J.S. Morris, A. Ohman, and R.J. Dolan Conscious and unconscious emotional learning in the human amygdala Nature 393 1998 467 470 (Pubitemid 28292192)
63. K. Nakamura, R. Kawashima, N. Sato, A. Nakamura, M. Sugiura, T. Kato, K. Hatano, K. Ito, H. Fukuda, T. Schormann, and K. Zilles Functional delineation of the human occipito-temporal areas related to face and scene processing. A PET study Brain 123 Pt 9 2000 1903 1912 (Pubitemid 30664293)
64. E.R.S. Nijenhuis, and J.A. Den Boer Psychobiology of traumatisation and trauma-related structural dissociation of the personality P.F. Dell, J.A. O'Neil, Dissociation and the Dissociative Disorders: DSM-V and Beyond 2009 Routledge New York 337 367
65. E.R.S. Nijenhuis, O. Van der Hart, and K. Steele The emerging psychobiology of trauma-related dissociation and dissociative disorders H. D'Haenen, J.A. Den Boer, P. Willner, Biological Psychiatry 2002 Wiley London 1079 1098
66. J.B. Nitschke, I. Sarinopoulos, D.J. Oathes, T. Johnstone, P.J. Whalen, R.J. Davidson, and N.H. Kalin Anticipatory activation in the amygdala and anterior cingulate in generalized anxiety disorder and prediction of treatment response The American Journal of Psychiatry 166 2009 302 310
67. J.R. Ogawa, L.A. Sroufe, N.S. Weinfield, E.A. Carlson, and B. Egeland Development and the fragmented self: longitudinal study of dissociative symptomatology in a nonclinical sample Development and Psychopathology 9 1997 855 879 (Pubitemid 127439099)
68. A. Öhman The role of the amygdala in human fear: automatic detection of threat Psychoneuroendocrinology 30 2005 953 958 (Pubitemid 40982478)
69. M. Oliveri, C. Babiloni, M.M. Filippi, C. Caltagirone, F. Babiloni, P. Cicinelli, R. Traversa, M.G. Palmieri, and P.M. Rossini Influence of the supplementary motor area on primary motor cortex excitability during movements triggered by neutral or emotionally unpleasant visual cues Experimental Brain Research 149 2003 214 221 (Pubitemid 36315372)
70. E.A. Osuch, B. Benson, M. Geraci, D. Podell, P. Herscovitch, U.D. McCann, and R.M. Post Regional cerebral blood flow correlated with flashback intensity in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder Biological Psychiatry 50 2001 246 253 (Pubitemid 32778440)
71. K.L. Phan, T. Wager, S.F. Taylor, and I. Liberzon Functional neuroanatomy of emotion: a meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRI NeuroImage 16 2002 331 348 (Pubitemid 34852450)
72. E.A. Phelps, K.J. O'Connor, J.C. Gatenby, J.C. Gore, C. Grillon, and M. Davis Activation of the left amygdala to a cognitive representation of fear Nature Neuroscience 4 2001 437 441 (Pubitemid 32260122)
73. D. Pitcher, V. Walsh, G. Yovel, and B. Duchaine TMS evidence for the involvement of the right occipital face area in early face processing Current Biology 17 2007 1568 1573 (Pubitemid 47385990)
74. P. Putman, E. Hermans, and J. Van Honk Emotional stroop performance for masked angry faces: it's BAS, not BIS Emotion 4 2004 305 311 (Pubitemid 39195421)
75. G. Rainer, M. Augath, T. Trinath, and N.K. Logothetis Nonmonotonic noise tuning of BOLD fMRI signal to natural images in the visual cortex of the anesthetized monkey Current Biology 11 2001 846 854 (Pubitemid 32532809)
76. S.L. Rauch, B.A. Van der Kolk, R.E. Fisler, N.M. Alpert, S.P. Orr, C.R. Savage, A.J. Fischman, M.A. Jenike, and R.K. Pitman A symptom provocation study of posttraumatic stress disorder using positron emission tomography and script-driven imagery Archives of General Psychiatry 53 1996 380 387 (Pubitemid 26149226)
77. S.L. Rauch, P.J. Whalen, L.M. Shin, S.C. McInerney, M.L. Macklin, N.B. Lasko, S.P. Orr, and R.K. Pitman Exaggerated amygdala response to masked facial stimuli in posttraumatic stress disorder: a functional MRI study Biological Psychiatry 47 2000 769 776 (Pubitemid 30254049)
78. A.A.T.S. Reinders, E.R.S. Nijenhuis, A.M. Paans, J. Korf, A.T. Willemsen, and J.A. Den Boer One brain, two selves NeuroImage 20 2003 2119 2125 (Pubitemid 37543627)
79. A.A.T.S. Reinders, J.A. Den Boer, and C. Buchel The robustness of perception European Journal of Neuroscience 22 2005 524 530 (Pubitemid 41097625)
80. A.A.T.S. Reinders, J. Glascher, J.R. De Jong, A.T. Willemsen, J.A. Den Boer, and C. Buchel Detecting fearful and neutral faces: BOLD latency differences in amygdala-hippocampal junction NeuroImage 33 2006 805 814 (Pubitemid 44485553)
81. A.A.T.S. Reinders, E.R.S. Nijenhuis, J. Quak, J. Korf, J. Haaksma, A.M. Paans, A.T. Willemsen, and J.A. Den Boer Psychobiological characteristics of dissociative identity disorder: a symptom provocation study Biological Psychiatry 60 2006 730 740 (Pubitemid 44427763)
82. A.A.T.S. Reinders, A.T.M. Willemsen, H.P.J. Vos, J.A. Den Boer, and E.R.S. Nijenhuis Fact or factitious? A psychobiological study of authentic and simulated dissociative identity states PLoS One 6 2012 e39279
83. E.T. Rolls, M.J. Tovee, and S. Panzeri The neurophysiology of backward visual masking: information analysis Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 11 1999 300 311 (Pubitemid 29281527)
84. H. Sakamoto, R. Fukuda, T. Okuaki, M. Rogers, K. Kasai, T. Machida, I. Shirouzu, H. Yamasue, T. Akiyama, and N. Kato Parahippocampal activation evoked by masked traumatic images in posttraumatic stress disorder: a functional MRI study NeuroImage 26 2005 813 821 (Pubitemid 40825024)
85. D. Sander, J. Grafman, and T. Zalla The human amygdala: an evolved system for relevance detection Reviews in the Neurosciences 14 2003 303 316 (Pubitemid 37462288)
86. C.E. Schwartz, C.I. Wright, L.M. Shin, J. Kagan, P.J. Whalen, K.G. McMullin, and S.L. Rauch Differential amygdalar response to novel versus newly familiar neutral faces: a functional MRI probe developed for studying inhibited temperament Biological Psychiatry 53 2003 854 862 (Pubitemid 36556170)
87. L.M. Shin, S.M. Kosslyn, R.J. McNally, N.M. Alpert, W.L. Thompson, S.L. Rauch, M.L. Macklin, and R.K. Pitman Visual imagery and perception in posttraumatic stress disorder. A positron emission tomographic investigation Archives of General Psychiatry 54 1997 233 241 (Pubitemid 27132052)
88. L.M. Shin, R.J. McNally, S.M. Kosslyn, W.L. Thompson, S.L. Rauch, N.M. Alpert, L.J. Metzger, N.B. Lasko, S.P. Orr, and R.K. Pitman Regional cerebral blood flow during script-driven imagery in childhood sexual abuse-related PTSD: A PET investigation The American Journal of Psychiatry 156 1999 575 584 (Pubitemid 29162979)
89. L.M. Shin, P.J. Whalen, R.K. Pitman, G. Bush, M.L. Macklin, N.B. Lasko, S.P. Orr, S.C. McInerney, and S.L. Rauch An fMRI study of anterior cingulate function in posttraumatic stress disorder Biological Psychiatry 50 2001 932 942 (Pubitemid 34066485)
90. L.M. Shin, S.P. Orr, M.A. Carson, S.L. Rauch, M.L. Macklin, N.B. Lasko, P.M. Peters, L.J. Metzger, D.D. Dougherty, P.A. Cannistraro, N.M. Alpert, A.J. Fischman, and R.K. Pitman Regional cerebral blood flow in the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex during traumatic imagery in male and female Vietnam veterans with PTSD Archives of General Psychiatry 61 2004 168 176 (Pubitemid 38146551)
91. D. Simeon, O. Guralnik, E.A. Hazlett, J. Spiegel-Cohen, E. Hollander, and M.S. Buchsbaum Feeling unreal: a PET study of depersonalization disorder The American Journal of Psychiatry 157 2000 1782 1788
92. N.P. Spanos Multiple identity enactments and multiple personality disorder: a sociocognitive perspective Psychological Bulletin 116 1994 143 165 (Pubitemid 24976766)
93. N.P. Spanos Multiple Identities & False Memories: A Sociocognitive Perspective 1996 American Psychological Association Washington
94. K. Steele, O. Van der Hart, and E.R. Nijenhuis Phase-oriented treatment of structural dissociation in complex traumatization: overcoming trauma-related phobias Journal of Trauma & Dissociation 6 2005 11 53 (Pubitemid 41684526)
95. M. Steinberg Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders (SCID-D) 1993 American Psychiatric Press Washington, DC
96. P.K. Trickett, J.G. Noll, and F.W. Putnam The impact of sexual abuse on female development: lessons from a multigenerational, longitudinal research study Development and Psychopathology 23 2011 453 476
97. E. Tronick, H. Als, L. Adamson, S. Wise, and T.B. Brazelton The infant's response to entrapment between contradictory messages in face-to-face interaction Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry 17 1978 1 13 (Pubitemid 9092930)
98. E. Tulving, S. Kapur, F.I. Craik, M. Moscovitch, and S. Houle Hemispheric encoding/retrieval asymmetry in episodic memory: positron emission tomography findings Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 91 1994 2016 2020 (Pubitemid 24092033)
99. L. Van Balen Activation and Localization of the Emotional Circuits in the Brain: An fMRI Study in Patients with Schizophrenia and Healthy Volunteers 2005 Rijksuniversiteit Groningen Groningen
100. O. Van der Hart, E.R.S. Nijenhuis, and K. Steele The Haunted Self: Structural Dissociation and the Treatment of Chronic Traumatization 2006 W.W. Norton & Company New York, London
101. J. Van Honk, A. Tuiten, M. Van den Hout, H. Koppeschaar, J. Thijssen, E. De Haan, and R. Verbaten Baseline salivary cortisol levels and preconscious selective attention for threat. A pilot study Psychoneuroendocrinology 23 1998 741 747 (Pubitemid 29009544)
102. J. Van Honk, A. Tuiten, M. Van den Hout, H. Koppeschaar, J. Thijssen, E. De Haan, and R. Verbaten Conscious and preconscious selective attention to social threat: different neuroendocrine response patterns Psychoneuroendocrinology 25 2000 577 591 (Pubitemid 30407310)
103. B.A. Vogt Pain and emotion interactions in subregions of the cingulate gyrus Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 6 2005 533 544 (Pubitemid 40942820)
104. P. Vuilleumier How brains beware: neural mechanisms of emotional attention Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9 2005 585 594 (Pubitemid 41677491)
105. P. Vuilleumier, and G. Pourtois Distributed and interactive brain mechanisms during emotion face perception: evidence from functional neuroimaging Neuropsychologia 45 2007 174 194 (Pubitemid 44821236)
106. P.J. Whalen, S.L. Rauch, N.L. Etcoff, S.C. McInerney, M.B. Lee, and M.A. Jenike Masked presentations of emotional facial expressions modulate amygdala activity without explicit knowledge Journal of Neuroscience 18 1998 411 418 (Pubitemid 28046798)
107. C.I. Wright, H. Fischer, P.J. Whalen, S.C. McInerney, L.M. Shin, and S.L. Rauch Differential prefrontal cortex and amygdala habituation to repeatedly presented emotional stimuli Neuroreport 12 2001 379 383 (Pubitemid 32114384)