Relevance of pre- and postnatal nutrition to development and interplay between the microbiota and metabolic and immune systems

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Volumn 98, Issue 2, 2013, Pages

  Nauta, Alma J ^a,c   Amor, Kaouther Ben ^a   Knol, Jan ^b   Garssen, Johan ^b,c   Van Der Beek, E M ^a,c  

^a Danone Research Centre for Specialised Nutrition   (Singapore)

^b DANONE RESEARCH   (Netherlands)

^c UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARACHIDONIC ACID; ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID; LACTOFERRIN; LINOLEIC ACID; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR ALPHA; PREBIOTIC AGENT; PROBIOTIC AGENT; SYNBIOTIC AGENT; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR PDX 1;

ADIPOGENESIS; ADIPOSE TISSUE; ALLERGY; ANTIBIOTIC ASSOCIATED DIARRHEA; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; ARTICLE; ATOPIC DERMATITIS; ATOPY; BACTERIAL CELL; BIFIDOBACTERIUM BREVE; BIOAVAILABILITY; BIRTH; BIRTH WEIGHT; BODY COMPOSITION; BODY FAT; BODY WEIGHT; BRAIN DEVELOPMENT; CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM; CELL PROLIFERATION; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DIGESTION; DNA METHYLATION; DYSLIPIDEMIA; ECZEMA; ENERGY BALANCE; ENERGY EXPENDITURE; ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ESCHERICHIA COLI; FAT INTAKE; FATTY ACID OXIDATION; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; GESTATIONAL AGE; HOMEOSTASIS; HOST PATHOGEN INTERACTION; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNOCOMPETENT CELL; INFECTION; INFECTIOUS DIARRHEA; INFLAMMATION; INSULIN SENSITIVITY; INTESTINE FLORA; LIPID METABOLISM; LIPID STORAGE; MATERNAL OBESITY; METABOLIC DISORDER; MICROBIAL COLONIZATION; MICROFLORA; NEWBORN PERIOD; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; PERINATAL DEVELOPMENT; PERINATAL PERIOD; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; POSTNATAL GROWTH; PREMATURITY; PRENATAL PERIOD; PROADIPOCYTE; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; REGULATORY T LYMPHOCYTE; STAPHYLOCOCCUS; TH1 CELL; THIRD TRIMESTER PREGNANCY; WEIGHT GAIN;

BREAST FEEDING; DIETARY FATS, UNSATURATED; FEMALE; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; HUMANS; IMMUNE SYSTEM; INFANT; INFANT FORMULA; INFANT NUTRITIONAL PHYSIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA; INFANT, NEWBORN; METAGENOME; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PREBIOTICS; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL NUTRITIONAL PHYSIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA; PROBIOTICS; SYNBIOTICS;

EID: 84881239290     PISSN: 00029165     EISSN: 19383207     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.112.039644     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. Godfrey KM, Barker DJ. Maternal nutrition in relation to fetal and placental growth. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1995;61:15-22.
2. Guilloteau P, Zabielski R, Hammon HM, Metges CC. Adverse effects of nutritional programming during prenatal and early postnatal life, some aspects of regulation and potential prevention and treatments. J Physiol Pharmacol 2009;60(suppl 3):17-35.
3. Hales CN, Barker DJ. The thrifty phenotype hypothesis. Br Med Bull 2001;60:5-20.
4. Tarry-Adkins JL, Ozanne SE. Mechanisms of early life programming: current knowledge and future directions. Am J Clin Nutr 2011;94 (suppl):1765S-71S.
5. Eriksson JG, Forsen T, Tuomilehto J, Osmond C, Barker DJ. Early adiposity rebound in childhood and risk of type 2 diabetes in adult life. Diabetologia 2003;46:190-4.
6. Fewtrell MS, Morley R, Abbott RA, Singhal A, Stephenson T, MacFadyen UM, Clements H, Lucas A. Catch-up growth in smallfor- gestational-age term infants: a randomized trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:516-23.
7. Boney CM, Verma A, Tucker R, Vohr BR. Metabolic syndrome in childhood: association with birth weight, maternal obesity, and gestational diabetes mellitus. Pediatrics 2005;115:e290-6.
8. Wijga AH, Scholtens S, Bemelmans WJ, de Jongste JC, Kerkhof M, Schipper M, Sanders EA, Gerritsen J, Brunekreef B, Smit HA. Comorbidities of obesity in school children: a cross-sectional study in the PIAMA birth cohort. BMC Public Health 2010;10:184.
9. Schack-Nielsen L, Michaelsen KF. Advances in our understanding of the biology of human milk and its effects on the offspring. J Nutr 2007;137(suppl):503S-10S.
10. Arenz S, Von Kries R. Protective effect of breast-feeding against obesity in childhood: can a meta-analysis of published observational studies help to validate the hypothesis? Adv Exp Med Biol 2009;639: 145-52.
11. Hanley B, Dijane J, Fewtrell M, Grynberg A, Hummel S, Junien C, Koletzko B, Lewis S, Renz H, Symonds M, et al. Metabolic imprinting, programming and epigenetics- A review of present priorities and future opportunities. Br J Nutr 2010;104(suppl 1):S1-25.
12. Barker DJ. The origins of the developmental origins theory. J Intern Med 2007;261:412-7.
13. Martin R, Nauta AJ, Ben Amor K, Knippels LMJ, Knol J, Garssen J. Early life: gut microbiota and immune development in infancy. Benef Microbes 2010;1:367-82.
14. Rajilic-Stojanovic M, Smidt H, de Vos WM. Diversity of the human gastrointestinal tract microbiota revisited. Environ Microbiol 2007;9: 2125-36.
15. Hooper LV, Macpherson AJ. Immune adaptations that maintain homeostasis with the intestinal microbiota. Nat Rev Immunol 2010;10: 159-69.
16. Jiménez E, Marin ML, Martin R, Odriozola JM, Olivares M, Xaus J, Fernandez L, Rodriguez JM. Is meconium from healthy newborns actually sterile? Res Microbiol 2008;159:187-93.
17. Hong PY, Lee BW, Aw M, Shek LP, Yap GC, Chua KY, Liu WT. Comparative analysis of fecal microbiota in infants with and without eczema. PLoS ONE 2010;5:e9964.
18. Satokari R, Gronroos T, Laitinen K, Salminen S, Isolauri E. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus DNA in the human placenta. Lett Appl Microbiol 2009;48:8-12.
19. Grönlund MM, Lehtonen OP, Eerola EPK. Fecal microflora in healthy infants born by different methods of delivery: permanent changes in intestinal flora after cesarean delivery. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1999;28:19-25.
20. Adlerberth I, Strachan D, Matricardi P, Ahrne S, Orfei L, Aberg N, Perkin M, Tripodi S, Hesselmar B, Saalman R, et al. Gut microbiota and development of atopic eczema in 3 European birth cohorts. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007;120:343-50.
21. Penders J, Thijs C, Vink C, Stelma FF, Snijders B, Kummeling I, van den Brandt PA, Stobberingh EE. Factors influencing the composition of the intestinal microbiota in early infancy. Pediatrics 2006;118: 511-21.
22. Huurre A, Kalliomäki M, Rautava S, Rinne M, Salminen S, Isolauri E. Mode of delivery-effects on gut microbiota and humoral immunity. Neonatology 2008;93:236-40.
23. Biasucci G, Benenati B, Morelli L, Bessi E, Boehm G. Cesarean delivery may affect the early biodiversity of intestinal bacteria. J Nutr 2008;138(suppl):1796S-800S.
24. Heikkilä MP, Saris PE. Inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus by the commensal bacteria of human milk. J Appl Microbiol 2003;95: 471-8.
25. Kirjavainen PV, Kalliomaki M, Salminen SJ, Isolauri E. Postnatal effects of obstetrical epidural anesthesia on allergic sensitization. Allergy 2007;62:88-9.
26. Martino DJ, Prescott SL. Silent mysteries: epigenetic paradigms could hold the key to conquering the epidemic of allergy and immune disease. Allergy 2010;65:7-15.
27. Levy O. Innate immunity of the newborn: basic mechanisms and clinical correlates. Nat Rev Immunol 2007;7:379-90.
28. Bach JF. The effect of infections on susceptibility to autoimmune and allergic diseases. N Engl J Med 2002;347:911-20.
29. Strachan DP. Hay fever, hygiene, and household size. BMJ 1989;299: 1259-60.
30. Singh M, Ranjan Das R. Probiotics for allergic respiratory diseases- putting it into perspective. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2010;21:e368- 76.
31. Gill SR, Pop M, Deboy RT, Eckburg PB, Turnbaugh PJ, Samuel BS, Gordon JI, Relman DA, Fraser-Liggett CM, Nelson KE. Metagenomic analysis of the human distal gut microbiome. Science 2006; 312:1355-9.
32. Hooper LV, Midtvedt T, Gordon JI. How host-microbial interactions shape the nutrient environment of the mammalian intestine. Annu Rev Nutr 2002;22:283-307.
33. Greiner T, Backhed F. Effects of the gut microbiota on obesity and glucose homeostasis. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2011;22:117-23.
34. Bäckhed F, Ding H, Wang T, Hooper LV, Koh GY, Nagy A, Semenkovich CF, Gordon JI. The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101: 15718-23.
35. Bäckhed F, Manchester JK, Semenkovich CF, Gordon JI. Mechanisms underlying the resistance to diet-induced obesity in germ-free mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007;104:979-84.
36. Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA, Magrini V, Mardis ER, Gordon JI. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature 2006;444:1027-31.
37. Ajslev TA, Andersen CS, Gamborg M, Sorensen TI, Jess T. Childhood overweight after establishment of the gut microbiota: the role of delivery mode, pre-pregnancy weight and early administration of antibiotics. Int J Obes (Lond) 2011;35:522-9.
38. Kalliomäki M, Collado MC, Salminen S, Isolauri E. Early differences in fecal microbiota composition in children may predict overweight. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;87:534-8.
39. Santacruz A, Collado MC, Garcia-Valdes L, Segura MT, Martin- Lagos JA, Anjos T, Marti-Romero M, Lopez RM, Florido J, Campoy C, et al. Gut microbiota composition is associated with body weight, weight gain and biochemical parameters in pregnant women. Br J Nutr 2010;104:83-92.
40. Collado MC, Isolauri E, Laitinen K, Salminen S. Effect of mother's weight on infant's microbiota acquisition, composition, and activity during early infancy: a prospective follow-up study initiated in early pregnancy. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;92:1023-30.
41. Monasta L, Batty GD, Cattaneo A, Lutje V, Ronfani L, Van Lenthe FJ, Brug J. Early-life determinants of overweight and obesity: a review of systematic reviews. Obes Rev 2010;11:695-708.
42. Frias AE, Morgan TK, Evans AE, Rasanen J, Oh KY, Thornburg KL, Grove KL. Maternal high-fat diet disturbs uteroplacental hemodynamics and increases the frequency of stillbirth in a nonhuman primate model of excess nutrition. Endocrinology 2011;152:2456- 64.
43. Hersoug LG, Linneberg A. The link between the epidemics of obesity and allergic diseases: does obesity induce decreased immune tolerance? Allergy 2007;62:1205-13.
44. Burcelin R, Garidou L, Pomie C. Immuno-microbiota cross and talk: the new paradigm of metabolic diseases. Semin Immunol 2012;24: 67-74.
45. Lumeng CN, Saltiel AR. Inflammatory links between obesity and metabolic disease. J Clin Invest 2011;121:2111-7.
46. Penttila IA. Milk-derived transforming growth factor-b and the infant immune response. J Pediatr 2010;156:S21-5.
47. Walker A. Breast milk as the gold standard for protective nutrients. J Pediatr 2010;156:S3-7.
48. Boehm G, Moro G. Structural and functional aspects of prebiotics used in infant nutrition. J Nutr 2008;138(suppl):1818S-28S.
49. Puccio G, Cajozzo C, Meli F, Rochat F, Grathwohl D, Steenhout P. Clinical evaluation of a new starter formula for infants containing live Bifidobacterium longum BL999 and prebiotics. Nutrition 2007;23: 1-8.
50. Goldman AS, Smith CW. Host resistance factors in human milk. J Pediatr 1973;82:1082-90.
51. Perez PF, Dore J, Leclerc M, Levenez F, Benyacoub J, Serrant P, Segura-Roggero I, Schiffrin EJ, Donnet-Hughes A. Bacterial imprinting of the neonatal immune system: lessons from maternal cells? Pediatrics 2007;119:e724-32.
52. Martín R, Langa S, Reviriego C, Jimínez E, Marín ML, Xaus J, Fernández L, Rodríguez JM. Human milk is a source of lactic acid bacteria for the infant gut. J Pediatr 2003;143:754-8.
53. Martín R, Jimenez E, Heilig H, Fernandez L, Marin ML, Zoetendal EG, Rodriguez JM. Isolation of bifidobacteria from breast milk and assessment of the bifidobacterial population by PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and quantitative real-time PCR. Appl Environ Microbiol 2009;75:965-9.
54. Collado MC, Delgado S, Maldonado A, Rodriguez JM. Assessment of the bacterial diversity of breast milk of healthy women by quantitative real-time PCR. Lett Appl Microbiol 2009;48:523-8.
55. Gueimonde M, Laitinen K, Salminen S, Isolauri E. Breast milk: a source of bifidobacteria for infant gut development and maturation? Neonatology 2007;92:64-6.
56. Ailhaud G, Massiera F, Weill P, Legrand P, Alessandri JM, Guesnet P. Temporal changes in dietary fats: role of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids in excessive adipose tissue development and relationship to obesity. Prog Lipid Res 2006;45:203-36.
57. Massiera F, Saint-Marc P, Seydoux J, Murata T, Kobayashi T, Narumiya S, Guesnet P, Amri EZ, Negrel R, Ailhaud G. Arachidonic acid and prostacyclin signaling promote adipose tissue development: a human health concern? J Lipid Res 2003;44:271-9.
58. Gibson GR, Roberfroid M. Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: introducing the concept of prebiotics. J Nutr 1995;125: 1401-12.
59. Georgi G, Bartke N, Wiens F, Stahl B. Functional glycans and glycoconjugates in human milk. Am J Clin Nutr 2013:98(suppl):578S-85S.
60. Bode L. Recent advances on structure, metabolism, and function of human milk oligosaccharides. J Nutr 2006;136:2127-30.
61. Stahl B, Thurl S, Henker J, Siegel M, Finke B, Sawatzki G. Detection of four human milk groups with respect to Lewis-blood-groupdependent oligosaccharides by serologic and chromatographic analysis. Adv Exp Med Biol 2001;501:299-306.
62. Thurl S, Munzert M, Henker J, Boehm G, Muller-Werner B, Jelinek J, Stahl B. Variation of human milk oligosaccharides in relation to milk groups and lactational periods. Br J Nutr 2010;104:1261-71.
63. Boehm G, Stahl B, Jelinek J, Knol J, Miniello V, Moro GE. Prebiotic carbohydrates in human milk and formulas. Acta Paediatr Suppl 2005;94:18-21.
64. Langlands SJ, Hopkins MJ, Coleman N, Cummings JH. Prebiotic carbohydrates modify the mucosa associated microflora of the human large bowel. Gut 2004;53:1610-6.
65. Knol J, Scholtens P, Kafka C, Steenbakkers J, Gro S, Helm K, Klarczyk M, Schäpfer H, Bäckler H-M, Wells J. Colon microflora in infants fed formula with galacto- and fructo-oligosaccharides: more like breast-fed infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2005;40: 36-42.
66. Moro G, Minoli I, Mosca M, Fanaro S, Jelinek J, Stahl B, Boehm G. Dosage-related bifidogenic effects of galacto- and fructooligosaccharides in formula-fed term infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2002;34:291-5.
67. Chaturvedi P, Warren CD, Buescher CR, Pickering LK, Newburg DS. Survival of human milk oligosaccharides in the intestine of infants. Adv Exp Med Biol 2001;501:315-23.
68. Obermeier S, Rudloff S, Pohlentz G, Lentze MJ, Kunz C. Secretion of 13C-labelled oligosaccharides into human milk and infant's urine after an oral [13C]galactose load. Isotopes Environ Health Stud 1999; 35:119-25.
69. Jeurink PV, van Esch BCAM, Rijnierse A, Garssen J, Knippels LMJ. Mechanisms underlying immune effects of dietary oligosaccharides. Am J Clin Nutr 2013:98(suppl):572S-7S.
70. Shibata R, Kimura M, Takahashi H, Mikami K, Aiba Y, Takeda H, Koga Y. Clinical effects of kestose, a prebiotic oligosaccharide, on the treatment of atopic dermatitis in infants. Clin Exp Allergy 2009;39: 1397-403.
71. Lomax AR, Calder PC. Prebiotics, immune function, infection and inflammation: a review of the evidence. Br J Nutr 2009;101:633-58.
72. WHO/FAO. Health and nutritional properties of probiotics in food including powder milk with lactic acid bacteria. FAO and WHO Joint and Expert Committee Report. Available from: ftp://ftp.fao.org/es/ esn/food/probioreporten (cited 8 March 2012).
73. Wallace B. Clinical use of probiotics in the pediatric population. Nutr Clin Pract 2009;24:50-9.
74. Salminen S, Isolauri E. Opportunities for improving the health and nutrition of the human infant by probiotics. Nestle Workshop Ser Pediatr Program 2008;62:223-37.
75. Laitinen K, Poussa T, Isolauri E. Probiotics and dietary counselling contribute to glucose regulation during and after pregnancy: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Nutr 2009;101:1679-87.
76. Luoto R, Isolauri E, Lehtonen L. Safety of Lactobacillus GG probiotic in infants with very low birth weight: twelve years of experience. Clin Infect Dis 2010;50:1327-8.
77. Kullen MJ, Bettler J. The delivery of probiotics and prebiotics to infants. Curr Pharm Des 2005;11:55-74.
78. Kalliomäki M, Antoine JM, Herz U, Rijkers GT, Wells JM, Mercenier A. Guidance for substantiating the evidence for beneficial effects of probiotics: prevention and management of allergic diseases by probiotics. J Nutr 2010;140(suppl):713S-21S.
79. Wolvers D, Antoine JM, Myllyluoma E, Schrezenmeir J, Szajewska H, Rijkers GT. Guidance for substantiating the evidence for beneficial effects of probiotics: prevention and management of infections by probiotics. J Nutr 2010;140:698S-712S.
80. Luoto R, Kalliomaki M, Laitinen K, Isolauri E. The impact of perinatal probiotic intervention on the development of overweight and obesity: follow-up study from birth to 10 years. Int J Obes (Lond) 2010;34:1531-7.
81. Luoto R, Laitinen K, Nermes M, Isolauri E. Impact of maternal probiotic-supplemented dietary counselling on pregnancy outcome and prenatal and postnatal growth: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Br J Nutr 2010;103:1792-9.
82. Johannsen H, Prescott SL. Practical prebiotics, probiotics and synbiotics for allergists: how useful are they? Clin Exp Allergy 2009;39: 1801-14.
83. Collins MD, Gibson GR. Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics: approaches for modulating the microbial ecology of the gut. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;69(suppl):1052S-7S.
84. Picaud JC, Chapalain V, Paineau D, Zourabichvili O, Bornet FR, Duhamel JF. Incidence of infectious diseases in infants fed follow-on formula containing synbiotics: an observational study. Acta Paediatr 2010.
85. Sazawal S, Dhingra U, Hiremath G, Sarkar A, Dhingra P, Dutta A, Verma P, Menon VP, Black RE. Prebiotic and probiotic fortified milk in prevention of morbidities among children: community-based, randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. PLoS ONE 2010;5: e12164.
86. Kukkonen K, Savilahti E, Haahtela T, Juntunen-Backman K, Korpela R, Poussa T, Tuure T, Kuitunen M. Probiotics and prebiotic galactooligosaccharides in the prevention of allergic diseases: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007; 119:192-8.
87. van der Aa LB, Heymans HS, van Aalderen WM, Sillevis Smitt JH, Knol J, Ben Amor K, Goossens DA, Sprikkelman AB. Effect of a new synbiotic mixture on atopic dermatitis in infants: a randomized-controlled trial. Clin Exp Allergy 2010;40:795-804.
88. van der Aa LB, van Aalderen WM, Heymans HS, Henk Sillevis Smitt J, Nauta AJ, Knippels LM, Ben Amor K, Sprikkelman AB. Synbiotics prevent asthma-like symptoms in infants with atopic dermatitis. Allergy 2011;66:170-7.
89. Flachs P, Rossmeisl M, Bryhn M, Kopecky J. Cellular and molecular effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on adipose tissue biology and metabolism. Clin Sci (Lond) 2009;116:1-16.
90. Helland IB, Smith L, Saarem K, Saugstad OD, Drevon CA. Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age. Pediatrics 2003;111:e39-44.
91. Damsgaard CT, Lauritzen L, Kjaer TM, Holm PM, Fruekilde MB, Michaelsen KF, Frokiaer H. Fish oil supplementation modulates immune function in healthy infants. J Nutr 2007;137:1031-6.
92. Ryan AS,Montalto MB, Groh-Wargo S, Mimouni F, Sentipal-Walerius J, Doyle J, Siegman JS, Thomas AJ. Effect of DHA-containing formula on growth of preterm infants to 59 weeks postmenstrual age. Am J Hum Biol 1999;11:457-67.
93. Innis SM, Adamkin DH, Hall RT, Kalhan SC, Lair C, Lim M, Stevens DC, Twist PF, Diersen-Schade DA, Harris CL, et al. Docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid enhance growth with no adverse effects in preterm infants fed formula. J Pediatr 2002;140:547-54.
94. Siemelink M, Verhoef A, Dormans JA, Span PN, Piersma AH. Dietary fatty acid composition during pregnancy and lactation in the rat programs growth and glucose metabolism in the offspring. Diabetologia 2002;45:1397-403.
95. Oosting A, Kegler D, Boehm G, Jansen HT, van de Heijning BJ, van der Beek EM. n-3 Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids prevent excessive fat deposition in adulthood in a mouse model of postnatal nutritional programming. Pediatr Res 2010;68:494-9.
96. Oosting AKD, Boehm G, Van de Heijning B, Van der Beek EM. Excessive fat deposition and adverse metabolic profile in adult mice is prevented by reducing dietary n-6 poylunsaturated fatty acids during neonatal life. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2010;50:E39.
97. Gottrand F. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids influence the immune system of infants. J Nutr 2008;138(suppl):1807S-12S.
98. van Vlies NHA, Fear AL, Van Esch BC, Oosting A, Van de Heijning B, Van der Beek E, Calder PC, Garssen J. Perinatal programming of murine immune responses by polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Dev Orig Health Dis 2011;2:112-23.
99. Nielsen S, Nielsen DS, Lauritzen L, Jakobsen M, Michaelsen KF. Impact of diet on the intestinal microbiota in 10-month-old infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2007;44:613-8.
100. Andersen AD, Molbak L, Michaelsen KF, Lauritzen L. Molecular fingerprints of the human fecal microbiota from 9 to 18 months old and the effect of fish oil supplementation. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2011;53:303-9.
101. Pscheidl E. Effects of fatty acids on gut integrity and function. Clin Nutr 2002;21:47-51.
102. García-Ródenas CL, Bergonzelli GE, Nutten S, Schumann A, Cherbut C, Turini M, Ornstein K, Rochat F, Corthesy-Theulaz I. Nutritional approach to restore impaired intestinal barrier function and growth after neonatal stress in rats. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2006;43: 16-24.
103. Whiting CV, Bland PW, Tarlton JF. Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reduce disease and colonic proinflammatory cytokines in a mouse model of colitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2005;11:340-9.
104. Li Q, Zhang Q, Wang C, Tang C, Zhang Y, Li N, Li J. Fish oil enhances recovery of intestinal microbiota and epithelial integrity in chronic rejection of intestinal transplant. PLoS ONE 2011;6:e20460.