Marriage, biology, and federal benefits

Iowa Law Review

Volumn 98, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 1467-1515

  Joslin, Courtney G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84880426177     PISSN: 00210552     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (279)

1. Courtney G. Joslin, Searching for Harm: Same-Sex Marriage and the Well-Being of Children, 46 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 81 (2011).
2. Toni M. Massaro, Gay Rights, Thick and Thin, 49 STAN. L. REV. 45 (1996)).
3. WILLIAM N. ESKRIDGE, JR., THE CASE FOR SAME-SEX MARRIAGE: FROM SEXUAL LIBERTY TO CIVILIZED COMMITMENT (1996);.
4. Jamal Greene, Comment, Divorcing Marriage from Procreation, 114 YALE L.J. 1989 (2005).
5. Nelson Tebbe & Deborah A. Widiss, Equal Access and the Right to Marry, 158 U. PA. L. REV. 1375, 1375 (2010).
6. Kenji Yoshino, The New Equal Protection, 124 HARV. L. REV. 747, 776-87 (2011).
7. Cass R. Sunstein, Homosexuality and the Constitution, in SEX, PREFERENCE, AND FAMILY 208 (David M. Estlund & Martha C. Nussbaum eds., 1997);.
8. Andrew Koppelman, Why Discrimination Against Lesbians and Gay Men Is Sex Discrimination, 69 N.Y.U. L. REV. 197 (1994);.
9. Sylvia A. Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 187;.
10. Edward Stein, Evaluating the Sex Discrimination Argument for Lesbian and Gay Rights, 49 UCLA L. REV. 471 (2001);.
11. Deborah A. Widiss et al., Exposing Sex Stereotypes in Recent Same-Sex Marriage Jurisprudence, 30 HARV. J.L. & GENDER 461 (2007).
12. Bruce A. Ackerman, Beyond Carolene Products, 98 Harv. L. Rev. 713 (1985);.
13. Cass R. Sunstein, Essay, Sexual Orientation and the Constitution: A Note on the Relationship Between Due Process and Equal Protection, 55 U. CHI. L. REV. 1161 (1988);.
14. Note, The Constitutional Status of Sexual Orientation: Homosexuality as a Suspect Classification, 98 HARV. L. REV. 1285 (1985);.
15. Nan D. Hunter, Sexual Orientation and the Paradox of Heightened Scrutiny, 102 MICH. L. REV. 1528 (2004).
16. Dayna K. Shah, Assoc. Gen. Counsel, U.S. Gen. Accounting Office, to Hon. Bill Frist, Majority Leader, U.S. Senate (Jan. 23, 2004), available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04353r.pdf.
17. Kristin A. Collins, Federalism's Fallacy: The Early Tradition of Federal Family Law and the Invention of States' Rights, 26 CARDOZO L. REV. 1761, 1761-65 (2005);.
18. David B. Cruz, The Defense of Marriage Act and Uncategorical Federalism, 19 WM. & MARY BILL RTS. J. 805 (2011);.
19. Jill Elaine Hasday, Federalism and the Family Reconstructed, 45 UCLA L. REV. 1297, 1370-86 (1998);.
20. Reva B. Siegel, She the People: The Nineteenth Amendment, Sex Equality, Federalism, and the Family, 115 HARV. L. REV. 947 (2002).
21. Kerry Abrams & Peter Brooks, Marriage as a Message: Same- Sex Couples and the Rhetoric of Accidental Procreation, 21 YALE J.L. & HUMAN. 1, 5 (2009).
22. Carlos A. Ball, Social Science Studies and the Children of Lesbians and Gay Men: The Rational Basis Perspective, 21 WM. & MARY BILL RTS. J.
23. Kim Forde-Mazrui, Tradition as Justification: The Case of Opposite-Sex Marriage, 78 U. CHI. L. REV. 281 (2011).
24. Courtney G. Joslin, Searching for Harm: Same-Sex Marriage and the Well-Being of Children, 46 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 81 (2011).
25. Julie A. Nice, The Descent of Responsible Procreation: A Genealogy of an Ideology, 45 LOY. L.A. L. REV. 781 (2012).
26. Edward Stein, The "Accidental Procreation" Argument for Withholding Legal Recognition for Same-Sex Relationships, 84 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 403, 435 (2009).
27. Deborah A. Widiss, Changing the Marriage Equation, 89 WASH. U. L. REV. 721, 725 n.8 (2012).
28. Kerry Abrams & Peter Brooks, Marriage as a Message: Same- Sex Couples and the Rhetoric of Accidental Procreation, 21 YALE J.L. & HUMAN. 1, 5 (2009).
29. Carlos A. Ball, Social Science Studies and the Children of Lesbians and Gay Men: The Rational Basis Perspective, 21 WM. & MARY BILL RTS. J.
30. Kim Forde-Mazrui, Tradition as Justification: The Case of Opposite-Sex Marriage, 78 U. CHI. L. REV. 281 (2011).
31. Courtney G. Joslin, Searching for Harm: Same-Sex Marriage and the Well-Being of Children, 46 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 81 (2011).
32. Julie A. Nice, The Descent of Responsible Procreation: A Genealogy of an Ideology, 45 LOY. L.A. L. REV. 781 (2012).
33. Edward Stein, The "Accidental Procreation" Argument for Withholding Legal Recognition for Same-Sex Relationships, 84 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 403, 435 (2009).
34. Cass R. Sunstein, Homosexuality and the Constitution, in SEX, PREFERENCE, AND FAMILY 208 (David M. Estlund & Martha C. Nussbaum eds., 1997);.
35. Andrew Koppelman, Why Discrimination Against Lesbians and Gay Men Is Sex Discrimination, 69 N.Y.U. L. REV. 197 (1994);.
36. Sylvia A. Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 187;.
37. Edward Stein, Evaluating the Sex Discrimination Argument for Lesbian and Gay Rights, 49 UCLA L. REV. 471 (2001);.
38. Deborah A. Widiss et al., Exposing Sex Stereotypes in Recent Same-Sex Marriage Jurisprudence, 30 HARV. J.L. & GENDER 461 (2007).
39. Nan D. Hunter, Animus Thick and Thin: The Broader Impact of the Ninth Circuit Decision in Perry v. Brown, 64 STAN. L. REV. ONLINE 111, 114 (2012).
40. Windsor v. United States, 699 F.3d 169, 199 (2d Cir. 2012).
41. 81 U.S.L.W. 3116 (U.S. Dec. 7, 2012) (No. 12-307);.
42. Conaway v. Deane, 932 A.2d 571, 630-34 (Md. 2007);.
43. Hernandez v. Robles, 855 N.E.2d 1, 7 (N.Y. 2006);.
44. Andersen v. King Cnty., 138 P.3d 963, 985 (Wash. 2006) (plurality opinion);.
45. Julie A. Nice, The Descent of Responsible Procreation: A Genealogy of an Ideology, 45 LOY. L.A. L. REV. 784 (2012).
46. COURTNEY G. JOSLIN & SHANNON P. MINTER, LESBIAN, GAY, BISEXUAL AND TRANSGENDER FAMILY LAW 3:13 (West 2012).
47. Massachusetts v. U.S. Dep't of Health & Human Servs., 682 F.3d 1, 12 (1st Cir. 2012).
48. Dayna K. Shah, Assoc. Gen. Counsel, U.S. Gen. Accounting Office, to Hon. Bill Frist, Majority Leader, U.S. Senate pp.1 (Jan. 23, 2004), available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04353r.pdf.
49. Golinski v. U.S. Office of Pers. Mgmt., 680 F.3d 1104 (9th Cir. 2012) (No. 12-15388), 2012 WL 2132484, at *49 (emphasis omitted);.
50. Pedersen v. Office of Pers. Mgmt., No. 3:10-CV-1750(VLB), 2012 WL 3113883, at *37 (D. Conn. July 31, 2012).
51. Edward Stein, The "Accidental Procreation" Argument for Withholding Legal Recognition for Same-Sex Relationships, 84 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 403, 408 (2009).
52. Kerry Abrams & Peter Brooks, Marriage as a Message: Same- Sex Couples and the Rhetoric of Accidental Procreation, 21 YALE J.L. & HUMAN. 1, 26 (2009).
53. Cary Franklin, Inventing the "Traditional Concept" of Sex Discrimination, 125 HARV. L. REV. 1307, 1313 (2012).
54. JILL ELAINE HASDAY, FAMILY LAW REIMAGINED: RECASTING THE CANON 4 (forthcoming 2013).
55. Janet Halley & Kerry Rittich, Critical Directions in Comparative Family Law: Genealogies and Contemporary Studies of Family Law Exceptionalism, 58 AM. J. COMP. L. 753 (2010);.
56. Courtney G. Joslin, Modernizing Divorce Jurisdiction: Same-Sex Couples and Minimum Contacts, 91 B.U. L. REV. 1669, 1677 (2011).
57. Linda Greenhouse, Standing and Delivering, N.Y. TIMES (Dec. 12, 2012, 9:00 PM), http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/12/12/standing-and- delivering/. On December 7, 2012, .
58. Perry v. Brown, 671 F.3d 1052 (9th Cir. 2012), cert. granted sub nom. Hollingsworth v. Perry, 81 U.S.L.W. 3075 (U.S. Dec. 7, 2012) (No. 92-212).
59. Heller v. Doe, 509 U.S. 312, 321 (1993).
60. generally Perry, 671 F.3d 1052;.
61. Derrick DePledge, Governor Concedes Marriage Law's Bias, HONOLULU STAR-ADVERTISER (Feb. 22, 2012, 1:30 AM), http://www.staradvertiser.com/s? action=login&f=y&id=139950773;.
62. Geoff Mulvihill, New Jersey Judge Reinstates One Part of Gay-Marriage Lawsuit, PRESS ATL. CITY (Feb. 21, 2012, 6:30 PM), http://www. pressofatlanticcity.com/news/breaking/new-jersey-judge-reinstates-one-partof- gay-marriage-lawsuit/article-f9ec7242-5ce3-11e1-9a18-001871e3ce6c.html;.
63. Steven Yaccino, Gay Marriage Ban Challenged in Illinois, N.Y. TIMES (May 30, 2012), http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/31/us/illinois-lawsuits-challenge-gay- marriage-ban.html?-r=1.
64. Astrue v. Capato ex rel. B.N.C., 132 S. Ct. 2021 (2012).
65. Capato, 132 S. Ct. 2021 (No. 11-159), 2012 WL 273128, at *9).
66. Massachusetts v. U.S. Dep't of Health & Human Servs., 682 F.3d 1 (1st Cir. 2012) (No. 10-2204), 2011 WL 5517823, at *2.
67. Goodridge v. Dep't of Pub. Health, 798 N.E.2d 941, 983-1005 (Mass. 2003).
68. Kerry Abrams & Peter Brooks, Marriage as a Message: Same- Sex Couples and the Rhetoric of Accidental Procreation, 21 YALE J.L. & HUMAN. 1, 3 (2009).
69. Courtney G. Joslin, Searching for Harm: Same-Sex Marriage and the Well-Being of Children, 46 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 85 (2011).
70. Kerry Abrams & Peter Brooks, Marriage as a Message: Same- Sex Couples and the Rhetoric of Accidental Procreation, 21 YALE J.L. & HUMAN. 1, 3 (2009).
71. CNN, ORC POLL 5, at 2 (2012), available at http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/ 2012/images/06/06/rel5e.pdf.
72. United States, 699 F.3d 169 (2d Cir. 2012) (No. 12-2335), 2012 WL 3548008, at 52.
73. Gill v. Office of Pers. Mgmt., 699 F. Supp. 2d 374, 391 (D. Mass. 2010).
74. Dayna K. Shah, Assoc. Gen. Counsel, U.S. Gen. Accounting Office, to Hon. Bill Frist, Majority Leader, U.S. Senate, pp.1 (Jan. 23, 2004), available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04353r.pdf.
75. Kerry Abrams & Peter Brooks, Marriage as a Message: Same- Sex Couples and the Rhetoric of Accidental Procreation, 21 YALE J.L. & HUMAN. 1, 6 (2009).
76. H.R. REP. NO. 104-664, at 14 (1996), reprinted in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N. 2905, 2918.
77. U.S. Dep't of Health & Human Servs., 682 F.3d 1 (1st Cir. 2012) (No. 10-2204), 2011 WL 4539095, at 52.
78. Robles, 855 N.E.2d 1, 7 (N.Y. 2006).
79. United States, 699 F.3d 169, 199 (2d Cir. 2012).
80. 81 U.S.L.W. 3116 (U.S. Dec. 7, 2012) (No. 12-307).
81. Kerry Abrams & Peter Brooks, Marriage as a Message: Same- Sex Couples and the Rhetoric of Accidental Procreation, 21 YALE J.L. & HUMAN. 1, 23 (2009).
82. Goodridge v. Dep't of Pub. Health, 798 N.E.2d 941, 995 (Mass. 2003).
83. Kerry Abrams & Peter Brooks, Marriage as a Message: Same- Sex Couples and the Rhetoric of Accidental Procreation, 21 YALE J.L. & HUMAN. 1, 23 (2009).
84. Morrison v. Sadler, 821 N.E.2d 15, 24-26 (Ind. Ct. App. 2005);.
85. Conaway v. Deane, 932 A.2d 571, 630-31 (Md. 2007);.
86. Hernandez v. Robles, 855 N.E.2d 1, 7 (N.Y. 2006);.
87. Julie A. Nice, The Descent of Responsible Procreation: A Genealogy of an Ideology, 45 LOY. L.A. L. REV. 816 (2012).
88. Monte Neil Stewart, Jacob D. Briggs & Julie Slater, Marriage, Fundamental Premises, and the California, Connecticut, and Iowa Supreme Courts, 2012 BYU L. REV. 193, 226.
89. Windsor v. United States, 699 F.3d 169, 201 (2d Cir. 2012).
90. 81 U.S.L.W. 3116 (U.S. Dec. 7, 2012) (No. 12-307).
91. Windsor, 699 F.3d at 207.
92. E. Cleveland, Ohio, 431 U.S. 494, 540 (1977).
93. Naomi Cahn, The New Kinship, 100 GEO. L.J. 367, 397 (2012).
94. Windsor, 699 F.3d at 207.
95. 381 U.S. 479, 493 (1965).
96. Cary Franklin, Inventing the "Traditional Concept" of Sex Discrimination, 125 HARV. L. REV. 1307, 1311 (2012).
97. Eric Hobsbawm, Introduction: Inventing Traditions, in THE INVENTION OF TRADITION 1, 1-2 (Eric Hobsbawm & Terence Ranger eds., 1983).
98. Eric Hobsbawm, Introduction: Inventing Traditions, in THE INVENTION OF TRADITION 1, 2 (Eric Hobsbawm & Terence Ranger eds., 1983).
99. Astrue v. Capato ex rel. B.N.C., 132 S. Ct. 2021, 2026 (2012).
100. Carl H. Coleman, Procreative Liberty and Contemporaneous Choice: An Inalienable Rights Approach to Frozen Embryo Disputes, 84 MINN. L. REV. 55, 58-59 (1999).
101. Capato, 132 S. Ct. at 2026.
102. Capato, 132 S. Ct. 2021 (No. 11-159), 2012 WL 273128, .
103. Capato, 132 S. Ct. at 2026.
104. Comm'r of Soc. Sec., 631 F.3d 626, 632 (3d Cir. 2011), .
105. Capato, 132 S. Ct. at 2030.
106. LINDA GORDON, PITIED BUT NOT ENTITLED: SINGLE MOTHERS AND THE HISTORY OF WELFARE 1890-1935, at 253-54 (1994).
107. Dayna K. Shah, Assoc. Gen. Counsel, U.S. Gen. Accounting Office, to Hon. Bill Frist, Majority Leader, U.S. Senate pp. 3-7 (Jan. 23, 2004), available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04353r.pdf.
108. Dorothy A. Brown et al., Social Security Reform: Risks, Returns, and Race, 9 CORNELL J.L. & PUB. POL'Y 633, 633 (2000).
109. Karen C. Burke & Grayson M.P. McCouch, Women, Fairness, and Social Security, 82 IOWA L. REV. 1209, 1209 (1997).
110. Jerry L. Mashaw, Federal Administration and Administrative Law in the Gilded Age, 119 YALE L.J. 1362, 1417 (2010).
111. Kristin A. Collins, Administering Marriage: Marriage-Based Entitlements, Bureaucracy, and the Legal Construction of the Family, 62 VAND. L. REV. 1085, 1091 (2009).
112. Linda C. McClain, Love, Marriage, and the Baby Carriage: Revisiting the Channelling Function of Family Law, 28 CARDOZO L. REV. 2133 (2007);.
113. Carl E. Schneider, The Channelling Function in Family Law, 20 HOFSTRA L. REV. 495 (1992).
114. Kerry Abrams, Marriage Fraud, 100 CALIF. L. REV. 1, 44 (2012).
115. NANCY D. POLIKOFF, BEYOND (STRAIGHT AND GAY) MARRIAGE: VALUING ALL FAMILIES UNDER THE LAW (2008).
116. Julie Nice, Promoting Marriage Experimentation: A Class Act?, 24 WASH. U. J.L. & POL'Y 31 (2007).
117. MAXINE EICHNER, THE SUPPORTIVE STATE: FAMILIES, GOVERNMENT, AND AMERICA'S POLITICAL IDEALS (2010).
118. THEDA SKOCPOL, PROTECTING SOLDIERS AND MOTHERS: THE POLITICAL ORIGINS OF SOCIAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES (1992);.
119. Alice Kessler-Harris, Designing Women and Old Fools: The Construction of the Social Security Amendments of 1939, in U.S. HISTORY AS WOMEN'S HISTORY: NEW FEMINIST ESSAYS 87, 90-91 (Linda K. Kerber, Alice Kessler-Harris & Kathryn Kish Sklar eds., 1995).
120. Goodwin Liu, Social Security and the Treatment of Marriage: Spousal Benefits, Earnings Sharing, and the Challenge of Reform, 1999 WIS. L. REV. 1, 5;.
121. LINDA GORDON, PITIED BUT NOT ENTITLED: SINGLE MOTHERS AND THE HISTORY OF WELFARE 1890-1935, at 253 (1994).
122. LINDA GORDON, PITIED BUT NOT ENTITLED: SINGLE MOTHERS AND THE HISTORY OF WELFARE 1890-1935, at 184 (1994).
123. Alice Kessler-Harris, Designing Women and Old Fools: The Construction of the Social Security Amendments of 1939, in U.S. HISTORY AS WOMEN'S HISTORY: NEW FEMINIST ESSAYS 87, 91-92 (Linda K. Kerber, Alice Kessler-Harris & Kathryn Kish Sklar eds., 1995).
124. Califano v. Jobst, 434 U.S. 47, 50 (1977);.
125. Goodwin Liu, Social Security and the Treatment of Marriage: Spousal Benefits, Earnings Sharing, and the Challenge of Reform, 1999 WIS. L. REV. 1, 11.
126. Social Security Amendments of 1956, Pub. L. No. 84-880, § 103(a), 70 Stat. 807, 815.
127. Robert Silverstein, Emerging Disability Policy Framework: A Guidepost for Analyzing Public Policy, 85 IOWA L. REV. 1691, 1785 (2000).
128. Stephen D. Sugarman, Children's Benefits in Social Security, 65 CORNELL L. REV. 836, 852-58 (1980).
129. Grace Ganz Blumberg, Adult Derivative Benefits in Social Security, 32 STAN. L. REV. 233, 258 (1980);.
130. Goodwin Liu, Social Security and the Treatment of Marriage: Spousal Benefits, Earnings Sharing, and the Challenge of Reform, 1999 WIS. L. REV. 1, 10-12.
131. Social Security Act Amendments of 1939, Pub. L. No. 76-397, §§ 102, 201, 53 Stat. 1360, 1361-65.
132. Grace Ganz Blumberg, Adult Derivative Benefits in Social Security, 32 STAN. L. REV. 233, 240-41 (1980).
133. Jill Elaine Hasday, Parenthood Divided: A Legal History of the Bifurcated Law of Parental Relations, 90 GEO. L.J. 299, 361 n.238 (2002).
134. Goodwin Liu, Social Security and the Treatment of Marriage: Spousal Benefits, Earnings Sharing, and the Challenge of Reform, 1999 WIS. L. REV. 1, 16-17
135. Margaret M. Mahoney, Stepfamilies in the Federal Law, 48 U. PITT. L. REV. 491, 496 (1987).
136. BLANCHE D. COLL, SAFETY NET: WELFARE AND SOCIAL SECURITY 1929-1979, 94 (1995).
137. LINDA GORDON, PITIED BUT NOT ENTITLED: SINGLE MOTHERS AND THE HISTORY OF WELFARE 1890-1935, at 5 (1994).
138. Alice Kessler-Harris, Designing Women and Old Fools: The Construction of the Social Security Amendments of 1939, in U.S. HISTORY AS WOMEN'S HISTORY: NEW FEMINIST ESSAYS 87, 102 (Linda K. Kerber, Alice Kessler-Harris & Kathryn Kish Sklar eds., 1995).
139. LINDA GORDON, PITIED BUT NOT ENTITLED: SINGLE MOTHERS AND THE HISTORY OF WELFARE 1890-1935, at 6 (1994).
140. Stephen D. Sugarman, What Is a "Family"? Conflicting Messages from Our Public Programs, 42 FAM. L.Q. 231, 237 (2008).
141. NANCY D. POLIKOFF, BEYOND (STRAIGHT AND GAY) MARRIAGE: VALUING ALL FAMILIES UNDER THE LAW 198 (2008).
142. Kerry Abrams, Marriage Fraud, 100 CALIF. L. REV. 1, 54-55 (2012).
143. Califano v. Jobst, 434 U.S. 47, 50 (1977).
144. Astrue v. Capato ex rel. B.N.C., 132 S. Ct. 2021, 2032 (2012).
145. 42 U.S.C. § 402(d)(3)-(4) (2006).
146. See Social Security Act Amendments of 1939, Pub. L. No. 379-76, §§ 101, 103, 53 Stat. 1360, 1360-62.
147. Kerry Abrams, Marriage Fraud, 100 CALIF. L. REV. 1, 19 (2012).
148. 20 C.F.R. § 404.335 (2012).
149. DOMA. Defense of Marriage Act, Pub L. No. 104-199, § 3, 110 Stat. 2419, 2419 (1996).
150. Capato, 132 S. Ct. at 2030.
151. Social Security Act Amendments of 1939, Pub. L. No. 76-379, § 209(m), 53 Stat. 1360, 1378.
152. Social Security Act Amendments of 1965, Pub. L. No. 89-97, § 339(a), 79 Stat. 286, 409-10.
153. Stephen D. Sugarman, What Is a "Family"? Conflicting Messages from Our Public Programs, 42 FAM. L.Q. 231, n.28. 237 (2008).
154. HARRY D. KRAUSE, ILLEGITIMACY: LAW AND SOCIAL POLICY 106 (1971).
155. Solangel Maldonado, Illegitimate Harm: Law, Stigma, and Discrimination Against Nonmarital Children, 63 FLA. L. REV. 345, 346 n.1 (2011).
156. Note, Developments in the Law-Conflict of Laws-1935-1936, 50 HARV. L. REV. 1119, 1151 (1937).
157. FREDERICK POLLOCK & FREDERIC WILLIAM MAITLAND, THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH LAW BEFORE THE TIME OF EDWARD I at 398 (2d ed. 1968).
158. HOMER H. CLARK JR., THE LAW OF DOMESTIC RELATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES 5:3, at 309 (2d ed. 1987).
159. ERNST FREUND, ILLEGITIMACY LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES AND CERTAIN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 22 (1919).
160. Harry D. Krause, Bringing the Bastard into the Great Society-A Proposed Uniform Act on Legitimacy, 44 TEX. L. REV. 829, 842 (1966).
161. 42 U.S.C. § 416(h)(2)(B) (2006).
162. Solangel Maldonado, Illegitimate Harm: Law, Stigma, and Discrimination Against Nonmarital Children, 63 FLA. L. REV. 345, 356-67 n.1 (2011).
163. Melissa Murray, What's So New About the New Illegitimacy?, 20 AM. U. J. GENDER SOC. POL'Y & L. 387, 435-36 (2012).
164. Marjorie M. Shultz, Taking Account of ARTs in Determining Parenthood: A Troubling Dispute in California, 19 WASH. U. J.L. & POL'Y 77, 114 & n.134 (2005).
165. Theresa Glennon, Somebody's Child: Evaluating the Erosion of the Marital Presumption of Paternity, 102 W. VA. L. REV. 547, 587 (2000).
166. UNIF. PROBATE CODE § 2-114(a) (revised 2005), 8 U.L.A. 91 (1998).
167. HARRY D. KRAUSE, ILLEGITIMACY: LAW AND SOCIAL POLICY 106, 26 (1971).
168. Astrue v. Capato ex rel. B.N.C., 132 S. Ct. 2021, 2030 (2012).
169. Courtney G. Joslin, Interstate Recognition of Parentage in a Time of Disharmony: Same-Sex Parent Families and Beyond, 70 OHIO ST. L.J. 563, 603 (2009).
170. Paula Roberts, Biology and Beyond: The Case for Passage of the New Uniform Parentage Act, 35 FAM. L.Q. 41, 46 (2001).
171. Sorenson Genomics to Bring the First-Ever Retail DNA Test to Market, BUS. WIRE (Nov. 26, 2007, 7:01 AM), http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/ 20071126005139/en/Sorenson-Genomics-Bring-First-Ever-Retail-DNA-Test;.
172. Melanie B. Jacobs, When Daddy Doesn't Want to Be Daddy Anymore: An Argument Against Paternity Fraud Claims, 16 YALE J.L. & FEMINISM 193, 196 n.18 (2004);.
173. Courtney G. Joslin, Interstate Recognition of Parentage in a Time of Disharmony: Same-Sex Parent Families and Beyond, 70 OHIO ST. L.J. 563, 603-04 (2009).
174. Homer H. Clark jr., THE LAW OF DOMESTIC RELATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES 5:1, at 278 (2d ed. 1987).
175. June Carbone & Naomi Cahn, Marriage, Parentage, and Child Support, 45 FAM. L.Q. 219, 223 (2011).
176. Jana Singer, Marriage, Biology, and Paternity: The Case for Revitalizing the Marital Presumption, 65 MD. L. REV. 246, 248-55 (2006).
177. Courtney G. Joslin, Interstate Recognition of Parentage in a Time of Disharmony: Same-Sex Parent Families and Beyond, 70 OHIO ST. L.J. 563, 616 (2009).
178. Michael H. v. Gerald D., 491 U.S. 110, 119-20 (1989).
179. Goodright Moss, (1777) 98 Eng. Rep. 1257 (K.B.) 1258.
180. Jana Singer, Marriage, Biology, and Paternity: The Case for Revitalizing the Marital Presumption, 65 MD. L. REV. 246, 249 (2006).
181. Solangel Maldonado, Illegitimate Harm: Law, Stigma, and Discrimination Against Nonmarital Children, 63 FLA. L. REV. 345, 350-67 n.1 (2011).
182. Homer H. Clark Jr., THE LAW OF DOMESTIC RELATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES 5:3, at 281-82;.
183. Jana Singer, Marriage, Biology, and Paternity: The Case for Revitalizing the Marital Presumption, 65 MD. L. REV. 246, 248 (2006).
184. Homer H. JR., THE LAW OF DOMESTIC RELATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES 5:4, at 343 (2d ed. 1987).
185. HARRY D. KRAUSE, ILLEGITIMACY: LAW AND SOCIAL POLICY 16 (1971).
186. Susan Frelich Appleton, Presuming Women: Revisiting the Presumption of Legitimacy in the Same-Sex Couples Era, 86 B.U. L. REV. 227, 234-36 (2006);.
187. June Carbone & Naomi Cahn, Marriage, Parentage, and Child Support, 45 FAM. L.Q. 219, 221-22 (2011).
188. Courtney G. Joslin, Protecting Children: Marriage, Gender, and Assisted Reproductive Technology, 83 S. CAL. L. REV. 1177, 1184-86 (2010).
189. Joslin & Shannon P. Minter, LESBIAN, GAY, BISEXUAL AND TRANSGENDER FAMILY LAW 3:3 (West 2012).
190. Joslin & Shannon P. Minter, LESBIAN, GAY, BISEXUAL AND TRANSGENDER FAMILY LAW 3:8 (West 2012).
191. Anne R. Dana, Note, The State of Surrogacy Laws: Determining Legal Parentage for Gay Fathers, 18 DUKE J. GENDER L. & POL'Y 353 (2011).
192. H. Paul Breslin, Note, Liability of Possible Fathers: A Support Remedy for Illegitimate Children, 18 STAN. L. REV. 859, 866 (1966).
193. Homer H. Clark jr., THE LAW OF DOMESTIC RELATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES 5:3, at 310 (2d ed. 1987).
194. UNIF. PROBATE CODE § 2-114(a) (revised 2005), 8 U.L.A. 91 (1998).
195. UNIF. PARENTAGE ACT § 505(a) (amended 2002), 9B U.L.A. 21 (Supp. 2011).
196. Jana Singer, Marriage, Biology, and Paternity: The Case for Revitalizing the Marital Presumption, 65 MD. L. REV. 246, 250-52. (2006).
197. Leslie Joan Harris, Voluntary Acknowledgements of Parentage for Same-Sex Couples, 20 AM. U. J. GENDER SOC. POL'Y & L. 467 (2012).
198. Courtney G. Joslin, Travel Insurance: Protecting Lesbian and Gay Parent Families Across State Lines, 4 HARV. L. & POL'Y REV. 31, 44 (2010).
199. Compare 42 U.S.C. § 666(a)(5)(B) (2006).
200. Demetrius H. v. Mikhaila C.M., 827 N.Y.S.2d 810 (App. Div. 2006).
201. Leslie Joan Harris, Voluntary Acknowledgements of Parentage for Same-Sex Couples, 20 AM. U. J. GENDER SOC. POL'Y & L. 479 (2012).
202. Legislative Fact Sheet-Parentage Act, UNIF. LAW COMM'N, http://uniformlaws.org/LegislativeFactSheet.aspx?title=ParentageAct(last visited Feb. 19, 2013).
203. Rose M. Kreider, U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, ADOPTED CHILDREN AND STEPCHILDREN: 2000, at 1-2 (2003), available at http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/censr-6. pdf.
204. Cynthia Grant Bowman, The Legal Relationship Between Cohabitants and Their Partners' Children, 13 THEORETICAL INQUIRIES L. 127 (2012).
205. Cynthia Grant Bowman, The New Illegitimacy: Children of Cohabiting Couples and Stepchildren, 20 AM. U. J. GENDER SOC. POL'Y & L. 437, 441 (2012);.
206. Margaret M. Mahoney, Stepfamilies in the Law of Intestate Succession and Wills, 22 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 917, 918 (1989).
207. Cynthia Grant Bowman, The Legal Relationship Between Cohabitants and Their Partners' Children, 13 THEORETICAL INQUIRIES L. 144-46 (2012).
208. Mary Ann Mason & David W. Simon, The Ambiguous Stepparent: Federal Legislation in Search of a Model, 29 FAM. L.Q. 445, 460-61 (1995).
209. Mary Ann Mason & David W. Simon, The Ambiguous Stepparent: Federal Legislation in Search of a Model, 29 FAM. L.Q. 445, 461-62 (1995).
210. Margaret M. Mahoney, Stepfamilies in the Federal Law, 48 U. PITT. L. REV. 491, 495 (1987).
211. Jerry L. Mashaw, Federal Administration and Administrative Law in the Gilded Age, 119 YALE L.J. 1362, 1106 (2010).
212. Jerry L. Mashaw, Federal Administration and Administrative Law in the Gilded Age, 119 YALE L.J. 1362, 1417-18 (2010).
213. William P. Quigley, The Quicksands of the Poor Law: Poor Relief Legislation in a Growing Nation, 1790-1820, 18 N. ILL. U. L. REV. 1, 49-50 (1997).
214. Megan J. McClintock, Civil War Pensions and the Reconstruction of Union Families, 83 J. AM. HIST. 456, 458 (1996);.
215. ROBERT MAYO & FERDINAND MOULTON, ARMY AND NAVY PENSION LAWS, AND BOUNTY LAND LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES, at x-xi, 6 (1852).
216. Jerry L. Mashaw, Federal Administration and Administrative Law in the Gilded Age, 119 YALE L.J. 1362, 1417-20 (2010).
217. Kristin A. Collins, Administering Marriage: Marriage-Based Entitlements, Bureaucracy, and the Legal Construction of the Family, 62 VAND. L. REV. 1085, 1097 (2009).
218. Susan Sterett, Husbands & Wives, Dangerousness & Dependence: Public Pensions in the 1860s-1920s, 75 DENV. U. L. REV. 1181, 1198-99 (1998).
219. Megan J. McClintock, Civil War Pensions and the Reconstruction of Union Families, 83 J. AM. HIST. 456, 6 (1996);.
220. Patricia E. Dilley, Taking Public Rights Private: The Rhetoric and Reality of Social Security Privatization, 41 B.C. L. REV. 975, 1027 (2000).
221. Kristin A. Collins, Federalism's Fallacy: The Early Tradition of Federal Family Law and the Invention of States' Rights, 26 CARDOZO L. REV. 1761, 1784 (2005).
222. Megan J. McClintock, Civil War Pensions and the Reconstruction of Union Families, 83 J. AM. HIST. 456, 461 (1996).
223. William J. Graham, Family Allowance Benefits, 1948 JAG J. 7, 7.
224. William J. Camp, Health Care Options for Former Military Spouses: Tricare and the Continued Health Care Benefit Program (CHCBP), 43 FAM. L.Q. 227, 234 (2009).
225. MHS History: Overview, MIL. HEALTH SYS., http://www.health.mil/About-MHS/ History.aspx(last visited Feb. 18, 2013).
226. Michael J. Jackonis, et al., War, Its Aftermath, and U.S. Health Policy: Toward a Comprehensive Health Program for America's Military Personnel, Veterans, and Their Families, 36 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 677, 679-80 (2008).
227. MILITARY COMPENSATION BACKGROUND PAPERS (2011), available at http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/pdf-files/Military-Comp-2011.pdf, .
228. Paul Figley, In Defense of Feres: An Unfairly Maligned Opinion, 60 AM. U. L. REV. 393, 404 (2010).
229. Michael J. Jackonis, et al., War, Its Aftermath, and U.S. Health Policy: Toward a Comprehensive Health Program for America's Military Personnel, Veterans, and Their Families, 36 J.L. MED. & ETHICS 677, 679 (2008).
230. Mark E. Sullivan & Charles R. Raphun, Dividing Military Retired Pay: Disability Payments and the Puzzle of the Parachute Pension, 24 J. AM. ACAD. MATRIM. LAW. 147, 148-49 (2011).
231. Charles A. Henning, CONG. RESEARCH SERV., RL 34751, MILITARY RETIREMENT: BACKGROUND AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS (2008).
232. LAWRENCE KAPP, CONG. RESEARCH SERV., RL30802, RESERVE COMPONENT PERSONNEL ISSUES: QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (2012).
233. Mark E. Sullivan & Charles R. Raphun, Dividing Military Retired Pay: Disability Payments and the Puzzle of the Parachute Pension, 24 J. AM. ACAD. MATRIM. LAW. 147, 150-51 (2011).
234. Marshal S. Willick, The Thrift Savings Plan, 28 FAM. ADVOC. 40, 40 (2005).
235. Richard A. Best Jr., CONG. RESEARCH SERV., IB93103, MILITARY MEDICAL CARE SERVICES: QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS, (200 5).
236. SERVICEMEMBERS LEGAL DEF. NETWORK, FREEDOM TO SERVE: THE DEFINITIVE GUIDE TO LGBT MILITARY SERVICE 21 (2011), available at http://sldn.3cdn.net/ 5d4dd958a62981cff8-v5m6bw1gx.pdf.
237. Darrell Baugh, Divorce & Deployment: Representing the Military Servicemember, FAM. ADVOC., Fall 2005, at 8, 9.
238. Dana J. Chase, Survivor Benefits Update, ARMY LAW., Dec. 2008, at 20, 20.
239. Kristin A. Collins, Administering Marriage: Marriage-Based Entitlements, Bureaucracy, and the Legal Construction of the Family, 62 VAND. L. REV. 1085, 1097-98 (2009).
240. VA OFFICE OF POLICY, PLANNING, AND PREPAREDNESS, VA DISABILITY COMPENSATION PROGRAM: LEGISLATIVE HISTORY 33-34 (2004), available at http://www.va.gov/op3/docs/ProgramEvaluations/DisCompProgram/ Disability-Comp-Legislative-Histor-Lit-Review.pdf.
241. Paul Figley, In Defense of Feres: An Unfairly Maligned Opinion, 60 AM. U. L. REV. 393, 403 (2010).
242. Mary Ann Mason & David W. Simon, The Ambiguous Stepparent: Federal Legislation in Search of a Model, 29 FAM. L.Q. 445, 460 (1995).
243. M.F. Talbot, 7 Comp. Gen. 343 (1927).
244. Yates, 23 Comp. Gen. 516, 519 (1944).
245. Mary Ann Mason & David W. Simon, The Ambiguous Stepparent: Federal Legislation in Search of a Model, 29 FAM. L.Q. 445, 461-62 (1995).
246. Mary Ann Mason & David W. Simon, The Ambiguous Stepparent: Federal Legislation in Search of a Model, 29 FAM. L.Q. 445, 466 (1995).
247. Leticia M. Saucedo & Maria Cristina Morales, Voices Without Law: The Border Crossing Stories and Workplace Attitudes of Immigrants, 21 CORNELL J.L. & PUB. POL'Y 641, 645 (2012).
248. Jennifer M. Chacón, Loving Across Borders: Immigration Law and the Limits of Loving, 2007 WIS. L. REV. 345, 357;.
249. Kevin R. Johnson, Race, the Immigration Laws, and Domestic Race Relations: A "Magic Mirror" into the Heart of Darkness, 73 IND. L.J. 1111, 1127-31 (1998).
250. Kerry Abrams, Immigration Law and the Regulation of Marriage, 91 MINN. L. REV. 1625, 1636 (2007);.
251. Kevin R. Johnson, The Intersection of Race and Class in U.S. Immigration Law and Enforcement, 72 LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS. 1, 12 (2009).
252. Scott Titshaw, A Modest Proposal to Deport the Children of Gay Citizens, & Etc.: Immigration Law, the Defense of Marriage Act and the Children of Same-Sex Couples, 25 GEO. IMMIGR. L.J. 407, 416 (2011).
253. Juliet Stumpf, Fitting Punishment, 66 WASH. & LEE L. REV. 1683, 1706-20 (2009);.
254. Enid Trucios-Haynes, Temporary Workers and Future Immigration Policy Conflicts: Protecting U.S. Workers and Satisfying the Demand for Global Human Capital, 40 BRANDEIS L.J. 967, 970-73 (2002).
255. Scott Titshaw, A Modest Proposal to Deport the Children of Gay Citizens, & Etc.: Immigration Law, the Defense of Marriage Act and the Children of Same-Sex Couples, 25 GEO. IMMIGR. L.J. 407, 426 (2011).
256. Margaret M. Mahoney, Stepfamilies in the Federal Law, 48 U. PITT. L. REV. 491, 515 (1987).
257. Scott Titshaw, A Modest Proposal to Deport the Children of Gay Citizens, & Etc.: Immigration Law, the Defense of Marriage Act and the Children of Same-Sex Couples, 25 GEO. IMMIGR. L.J. 407, 415-20 (2011).
258. Overview, U.S. IMMIGRATION & CUSTOMS ENFORCEMENT, http://www.ice.gov/about/overview/(last visited Feb. 18, 2013).
259. Mary Ann Mason & David W. Simon, The Ambiguous Stepparent: Federal Legislation in Search of a Model, 29 FAM. L.Q. 445, 466 (1995).
260. Margaret M. Mahoney, Stepfamilies in the Federal Law, 48 U. PITT. L. REV. 491, 521 (1987).
261. M.F. Talbot, 7 Comp. Gen. 343, 345 (1927).
262. Megan J. McClintock, Civil War Pensions and the Reconstruction of Union Families, 83 J. AM. HIST. 456, 469-70 (1996);.
263. Transportation, Rental, and Subsistence Allowances for Dependent Children, 9 Comp. Gen. 299, 301 (1930).
264. Yates, 23 Comp. Gen. 71, 73 (1943).
265. Saville, 38 Comp. Gen. 89, 89 (1958).
266. Patricia A. Cain, Taxing Families Fairly, 48 SANTA CLARA L. REV. 805, 843 (2008).
267. Cary Franklin, Inventing the "Traditional Concept" of Sex Discrimination, 125 HARV. L. REV. 1307, 1313 (2012).
268. Eric Hobsbawm, Introduction: Inventing Traditions, in THE INVENTION OF TRADITION 1, 12 (Eric Hobsbawm & Terence Ranger eds., 1983).
269. Courtney G. Joslin, Modernizing Divorce Jurisdiction: Same-Sex Couples and Minimum Contacts, 91 B.U. L. REV. 1669, 1674 (2011).
270. Jeremy D. Weinstein, Note, Adultery, Law, and the State: A History, 38 HASTINGS L.J. 195, 226 (1986).
271. Elizabeth F. Emens, Monogamy's Law: Compulsory Monogamy and Polyamorous Existence, 29 N.Y.U. REV. L. & SOC. CHANGE 277, 290 n.50 (2004).
272. Health & Human Servs., 682 F.3d 1 (1st Cir. 2012).
273. Mary Ann Mason & David W. Simon, The Ambiguous Stepparent: Federal Legislation in Search of a Model, 29 FAM. L.Q. 445, 460 (1995).
274. Wendy C. Gerzog, Families for Tax Purposes: What About the Steps?, 42 U. MICH. J.L. REFORM 805, 807 (2009).
275. Margorie Engel, Pockets of Poverty: The Second Wives Club-Examining the Financial (In)Security of Women in Remarriages, 5 WM. & MARY J. WOMEN & L. 309, 320 n.68 (1999);.
276. Mary Ann Mason & David W. Simon, The Ambiguous Stepparent: Federal Legislation inSearch of a Model, 29 FAM. L.Q. 445, 454 (1995).
277. Mary Ann Mason & David W. Simon, The Ambiguous Stepparent: Federal Legislation in Search of a Model, 29 FAM. L.Q. 445, 451-56 (1995).
278. Shari Motro, The Price of Pleasure, 104 NW. U. L. REV. 917, 922 (2010).
279. Shari Motro, Preglimony, 63 STAN. L. REV. 647, 661 n.47 (2011).