Our electoral exceptionalism

University of Chicago Law Review

Volumn 80, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 769-858

  Stephanopoulos, Nicholas O ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

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EID: 84879213615     PISSN: 00419494     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (562)

1. See Texas Redistricting 2011 (Texas Legislative Counsel), online at http://www.tlc.state.tx.us/redist/pdf/Redistricting%20101-web.pdf (visited May 11, 2013).
2. See Lorraine C. Miller, Statistics of the Presidential and Congressional Election of November 4, 2008 58 (Clerk of the House of Representatives July 2009), online at http://artandhistory.house.gov/congress/111/2008election.pdf (visited May 11, 2013);
3. Ross Ramsey, Updated: Perry Adds Redistricting to Agenda, Texas Weekly (The Texas Tribune May 31, 2011), online at http://www.texastribune.org/texas- redistricting/redistricting/updated-perry-adds-redistricting-to-agenda (visited May 11, 2013). 3 Voting Rights Act of 1965, Pub L No 89-110, 79 Stat 437, codified as amended at 42 USC § 1973 et seq.
4. See National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL), Redistricting Law 2010 126 (2009).
5. See Justin Levitt, All about Redistricting: Professor Justin Levitt's Guide to Drawing the Electoral Lines; Litigation in the 2010 Cycle (Loyola Law School 2012), online at http://redistricting.lls.edu/cases-TX.php#TX (visited May 11, 2013).
6. Texas v United States, 831 F Supp 2d 244, 246-47 (DDC 2011) (denying Texas's motion for summary judgment in suit for preclearance pursuant to VRA).
7. See Perry v Perez, 132 S Ct 934, 940-44 (2012) (holding that district court improperly substituted its own district plan for that of legislature and remanding);
8. Perez v Perry, 2012 WL 4094933, 1-2 (WD Tex) (denying motion to stay implementation of interim plan and adopting Plan C235 for 2012 election).
9. Reynolds v Sims, 377 US 533, 567 n 44 (1964).
10. Vieth v Jubelirer, 541 US 267, 363 (2004) (Breyer dissenting).
11. See also Baker v Carr, 369 US 186, 305-06 (1962)
12. See Lisa Handley, A Comparative Survey of Structure and Criteria for Boundary Delimitation, in Lisa Handley and Bernie Grofman, eds, Redistricting in Comparative Perspective 265, 265 (Oxford 2008) ("[T]here has been no systematic, comparative study of constituency delimitation laws and practices conducted to date.").
13. See Louis Massicotte, André Blais, and Antoine Yoshinaka, Establishing the Rules of the Game: Election Laws in Democracies 4 (Toronto 2004)
14. See, for example, Lawrence LeDuc, Richard G. Niemi, and Pippa Norris, eds, Comparing Democracies: Elections and Voting in Global Perspective 7 (Sage 1996);
15. Vernon Bogdanor and David Butler, eds, Democracy and Elections: Electoral Systems and Their Political Consequences vii (Cambridge 1983)
16. Bernard Grofman and Arend Lijphart, eds, Electoral Laws and Their Political Consequences 1-4 (Agathon 1986);
17. Arend Lijphart, Electoral Systems and Party Systems: A Study of Twenty- Seven Democracies 1945-1990 1 (Oxford 1994)
18. Matthew Soberg Shugart and Martin P. Wattenberg, eds, Mixed-Member Electoral Systems: The Best of Both Worlds? 2 (Oxford 2001).
19. See, for example, Christopher S. Elmendorf, Representation Reinforcement through Advisory Commissions: The Case of Election Law, 80 NYU L Rev 1366, 1385- 1405 (2005)
20. Samuel Issacharoff, Gerrymandering and Political Cartels, 116 Harv L Rev 593, 629-30 n 145 (2002)
21. Richard H. Pildes, The Supreme Court, 2003 Term-Foreword: The Constitutionalization of Democratic Politics, 118 Harv L Rev 28, 78-80 (2004)
22. See Andrew Gelman and Gary King, Enhancing Democracy through Legislative Redistricting, 88 Am Polit Sci Rev 541, 544-45 (1994).
23. See Nicholas O. Stephanopoulos, Spatial Diversity, 125 Harv L Rev 1903, 1941- 48 (2012).
24. See Nicholas O. Stephanopoulos, Redistricting and the Territorial Community, 160 U Pa L Rev 1379, 1389-97 (2012).
25. See Stephanopoulos, 125 Harv L Rev at 1940 n 188-89 (cited in note 14)
26. See Rosalind Dixon, A Democratic Theory of Constitutional Comparison, 56 Am J Comp L 947, 956 (2008)
27. Mark Tushnet, The Possibilities of Comparative Constitutional Law, 108 Yale L J 1225, 1308 (1999).
28. See Lani Guinier, Groups, Representation, and Race-Conscious Districting: A Case of the Emperor's Clothes, 71 Tex L Rev 1589, 1602-05 (1993);
29. Richard H. Pildes and Richard G. Niemi, Expressive Harms, "Bizarre Districts," and Voting Rights: Evaluating Election-District Appearances after Shaw v. Reno, 92 Mich L Rev 483, 502 (1993).
30. See Ran Hirschl, The Question of Case Selection in Comparative Constitutional Law, 53 Am J Comp L 125, 133-34 (2005)
31. See also David Butler and Bruce E. Cain, Reapportionment: A Study in Comparative Government, 4 Electoral Stud 197, 197 (1985)
32. See Cal Const Art XXI. See also Nicholas O. Stephanopoulos, Communities and the California Commission, 23 Stan L & Pol Rev 281, 293-302 (2012) (assessing record of new California commission with respect to preservation of geographic communities of interest).
33. http://votersfirstohio.org
34. http://www.sos.state.oh.us/sos/upload/ballotboard/2012/2012stateissues. pdf
35. http://www.sos.state.oh.us/SOS/elections/Research/electResultsMain/ 2012Results/20121106issue2.aspx
36. http://www.legis.state.tx.us/BillLookup/History.aspx?LegSess= 821&Bill=SB22
37. See Northwest Austin Municipal Utility District Number One v Holder, 557 US 193, 205-06 (2009) (declining to reach merits of constitutional challenge to § 5 of VRA);
38. Shelby County, Alabama v Holder, 679 F3d 848, 852-53 (DC Cir 2012), cert granted, 133 S Ct 594 (2012)
39. See Nicholas Stephanopoulos, Reforming Redistricting: Why Popular Initiatives to Establish Redistricting Commissions Succeed or Fail, 23 J L & Polit 331, 346 (2007).
40. See Colegrove v Green, 328 US 549, 551-52 (1946).
41. See, for example, Denney v Basler, 42 NE 929, 931 (Ind 1896);
42. Baird v Board of Supervisors of Kings County, 33 NE 827, 832 (NY 1893);
43. Brown v Saunders, 166 SE 105, 111 (Va 1932).
44. See Seth Warren Whitaker, Note, State Redistricting Law: Stephenson v. Bartlett and the Judicial Promotion of Electoral Competition, 91 Va L Rev 203, 203 (2005).
45. See Baker v Carr, 369 US 186, 230-37 (1962)
46. See generally Gary W. Cox and Jonathan N. Katz, Elbridge Gerry's Salamander: The Electoral Consequences of the Reapportionment Revolution (Cambridge 2002).
47. See Reynolds v Sims, 377 US 533, 561, 567 (1964);
48. Wesberry v Sanders, 376 US 1, 14, 17-18 (1964).
49. See White v Regester, 412 US 755, 765-66, 769-70 (1973).
50. See City of Mobile, Alabama v Bolden, 446 US 55, 60-61 (1980)
51. See Davis v Bandemer, 478 US 109, 113 (1986).
52. See also Vieth v Jubelirer, 541 US 267, 278-81 (2004)
53. See Shaw v Reno, 509 US 630, 657-58 (1993).
54. See James A. Gardner, Foreword: Representation without Party-Lessons from State Constitutional Attempts to Control Gerrymandering, 37 Rutgers L J 881, 925-55 (2006)
55. See Levitt, Litigation in the 2010 Cycle (cited in note 5).
56. See Stephanopoulos, 23 J L & Polit at 332-33, 342-43, 345-78 (cited in note 29)
57. Bruce E. Cain, Redistricting Commissions: A Better Political Buffer?, 121 Yale L J 1808, 1813 (2012).
58. See NCSL, Redistricting at 163-71 (cited in note 4).
59. See also Cain, 121 Yale L J at 1813-20
60. See Redistricting Plan Success Rates: Legislatures vs. Commissions (Redistricting and Elections Committee for the National Conference of State Legislatures Jan 9, 2008), online at http://www.senate.leg.state.mn.us/ departments/scr/redist/redsum2000/success-rates.htm (visited May 11, 2013).
61. See also Christopher C. Confer, To Be about the People's Business: An Examination of the Utility of Nonpolitical/Bipartisan Legislative Redistricting Commissions, 13 Kan J L & Pub Pol 115, 131-32 (Winter 2003-04);
62. Samuel Issacharoff, Judging Politics: The Elusive Quest for Judicial Review of Political Fairness, 71 Tex L Rev 1643, 1689-90 (1993);
63. Jonathan Winburn, Does It Matter if Legislatures or Commissions Draw the Lines?, in Gary F. Moncrief, ed, Reapportionment and Redistricting in the West 137, 149 (Lexington 2011)
64. Bernard Grofman, Criteria for Districting: A Social Science Perspective, 33 UCLA L Rev 77, 124-26 (1985).
65. John C. Courtney, From Gerrymanders to Independence: District Boundary Readjustments in Canada, in Handley and Grofman, eds, Redistricting 11, 12 (cited in note 10).
66. R.K. Carty, The Electoral Boundary Revolution in Canada, 15 Am Rev Can Stud 273, 276-79 (1985).
67. D.J. Rossiter, R.J. Johnston, and C.J. Pattie, The Boundary Commissions: Redrawing the UK's Map of Parliamentary Constituencies 2 (Manchester 1999).
68. See also Graeme Orr, The Law of Politics: Elections, Parties and Money in Australia 23-25, 36 (Federation 2010)
69. Royal Commission on the Electoral System, Report: Towards A Better Democracy 133 (1986)
70. See Handley and Grofman, eds, Redistricting at appendix B
71. See also Joel S. Fetzer, Election Strategy and Ethnic Politics in Singapore, 4 Taiwan J Dem 135, 142-47 (2008);
72. Jeremy Grace, Malaysia: Malapportioned Districts and Over-Representation of Rural Communities (ACE Electoral Knowledge Network), online at http://aceproject.org/ace-en/topics/bd/bdy/bdy-my (visited May 11, 2013).
73. See David Butler and Bruce Cain, Congressional Redistricting: Comparative and Theoretical Perspectives 117, 125-28 (Macmillan 1992);
74. Michel Balinski, Redistricting in France under Changing Electoral Rules, in Handley and Grofman, eds, Redistricting 173, 178-79, 183-84
75. Richard S. Katz, Malapportionment and Gerrymandering in Other Countries and Alternative Electoral Systems, in Mark E. Rush, ed, Voting Rights and Redistricting in the United States 245, 255 (Greenwood 1998).
76. See also Balinski, Redistricting in France at 182
77. See Conseil Constitutionnel, Observations about Elections of 2007 (July 7, 2005) (France);
78. Conseil Constitutionnel, Observations about Legislative Elections of June 9 and 16, 2002, May 21, 2003 (France).
79. See Ray Christensen, Redistricting in Japan: Lessons for the United States, 5 Japanese J Polit Sci 259, 263 (2004);
80. Toshimasha Moriwaki, The Politics of Redistricting in Japan: A Contradiction between Equal Population and Respect for Local Government Boundaries, in Handley and Grofman, eds, Redistricting at 107, 111 (cited in note 10).
81. See Christensen, 5 Japanese J Polit Sci at 259- 63 (cited in note 52).
82. See also 47 Minshu 67 (Saiko Saibansho, Jan 20, 1993) (Japan);
83. 39 Minshu 1100 (Saiko Saibansho, July 17, 1985) (Japan);
84. 37 Minshu 1243 (Saiko Saibansho, Nov 7, 1983) (Japan);
85. J. Mark Ramseyer and Eric B. Rasmusen, Why Are Japanese Judges So Conservative in Politically Charged Cases?, 95 Am Polit Sci Rev 331, 336 (2001)
86. See Christensen, 5 Japanese J Polit Sci at 263 (cited in note 52).
87. John Coakley, Electoral Redistricting in Ireland, in Handley and Grofman, eds, Redistricting at 155, 160-62 (cited in note 10).
88. See also Andrew McLaren Carstairs, A Short History of Electoral Systems in Western Europe 207-09 (George Allen 1980);
89. Katz, Malapportionment at 249, 254-55 (cited in note 48).
90. See Christopher S. Elmendorf, Election Commissions and Electoral Reform: An Overview, 5 Election L J 425, 426 (2006)
91. See Reference re Electoral Divisions Statutes Amendment Act, 1993, 119 DLR 4th 1, 2 (Alberta App 1994) (Canada) ("1994 Alberta Reference Case");
92. Dixon v British Columbia (Attorney-General), 59 DLR 4th 247, 284 (BC S Ct 1989) (Canada);
93. MacKinnon v Prince Edward Island, 101 DLR 4th 362, 399 (PEI S Ct 1993) (Canada).
94. 1994 Alberta Reference Case, 119 DLR 4th at 19.
95. See Handley and Grofman, eds, Redistricting at appendix B (cited in note 10).
96. See Balinski, Redistricting in France at 182 (cited in note 48);
97. Moriwaki, The Politics of Redistricting in Japan at 108 (cited in note 52);
98. Alan McRobie, An Independent Commission with Political Input: New Zealand's Electoral Redistribution Practices, in Handley and Grofman, eds, Redistricting at 27, 28 (cited in note 10).
99. See Rod Medew, Redistribution in Australia: The Importance of One Vote, One Value, in Handley and Grofman, eds, Redistricting at 97, 99 (cited in note 10);
100. Ron Johnson, Charles Pattie, and David Rossiter, Electoral Distortion Despite Redistricting by Independent Commissions: The British Case, 1950-2005, in Handley and Grofman, eds, Redistricting at 205, 207 (cited in note 10);
101. John C. Courtney, Commissioned Ridings: Designing Canada's Electoral Districts 94 (McGill-Queen's 2001).
102. See John C. Courtney, Electoral Boundary Redistributions, in Malcolm Alexander and Brian Galligan, eds, Comparative Political Studies: Australia and Canada 45, 48 (Pitman 1992).
103. Elmendorf, 80 NYU L Rev at 1388 (cited in note 12).
104. Reference re Provincial Electoral Boundaries (Sask), 2 SCR 158, 177-78, 183-84, 194-96 (S Ct 1991)
105. John C. Courtney, Commissioned Ridings at 173 (cited in note 66)
106. Ronald E. Fritz, Challenging Electoral Boundaries under the Charter: Judicial Deference and Burden of Proof, 5 Rev Const Stud 1, 1, 33 (1999).
107. Harper v Secretary of State for the Home Department, [1955] Ch 238, 251 (1954) (Eng).
108. Regina v Boundary Commission for England, [1983] 1 QB 600, 627, 637 (1983).
109. See also Hammersmith BC v Boundary Commission for England, reported in Times (London) 4 (Dec 15, 1954)
110. See McGinty v Western Australia, 186 CLR 140, 178-79 (High Ct 1996)
111. McKinlay v Commonwealth, 135 CLR 1, 33-35 (High Ct 1975)
112. See Election Commission of India v Ghani, 6 SCC 721, 2, 10 (S Ct 1995) (India);
113. Kothari v Delimitation Commission, 1 SCR 400, 11 (S Ct 1967)
114. See Timmins v Governor-General, 2 NZLR 298, 302 (High Ct 1984)
115. See Claim on the Invalidation of the Election, 61 Minshu - (Saiko Saibansho June 13, 2007) (Japan);
116. Case to Seek Invalidity of Election, 53 Minshu 1441 (Saiko Saibansho Nov 10, 1999) (Japan);
117. Case to Seek Nullification of Election, 49 Minshu 1443 (Saiko Saibansho June 8, 1995) (Japan).
118. Murphy v Minister for Envt, Heritage & Local Govt, IEHC 185, 7.5, 10.1 (High Ct 2007) (Ireland).
119. Charlottetown (City) v Prince Edward Island, 142 DLR 4th 343, 352 (PEI S Ct 1996) (Canada).
120. See Cain, 121 Yale L J at 1817-19 (cited in note 43) (analyzing politicization dimension at length).
121. Erin Daly, Idealist, Pragmatists, and Textualists: Judging Electoral Districts in America, Canada, and Australia, 21 BC Intl & Comp L Rev 261, 262 (1998)
122. See Brent T. White, Putting Aside the Rule of Law Myth: Corruption and the Case for Juries in Emerging Democracies, 43 Cornell Intl L J 307, 348-49 (2010);
123. Randall Peerenboom, Show Me the Money: The Dominance of Wealth in Determining Rights Performance in Asia, 15 Duke J Comp & Intl L 75, 76 (2004).
124. See Cain, 121 Yale L J 1819 (cited in note 43).
125. Balinski, Redistricting in France at 182 (cited in note 48);
126. Moriwaki, The Politics of Redistricting in Japan at 112 (cited in note 52).
127. See Tom Ginsburg and Eric A. Posner, Subconstitutionalism, 62 Stan L Rev 1583, 1585, 1587-88 (2010)
128. See also D. Theodore Rave, Politicians as Fiduciaries, 126 Harv L Rev 671, 706 (2013)
129. See, for example, Courtney, District Boundary Readjustments in Canada at 15- 18 (cited in note 45).
130. See Cox and Katz, Elbridge Gerry's Salamander at 4, 13, 52, 59-60
131. Courtney, Commissioned Ridings at 20, 23 (cited in note 66).
132. See also Fetzer, 4 Taiwan J Dem at 142-47
133. Ginsburg and Posner, 62 Stan L Rev at 1590-91
134. See also Pildes, 118 Harv L Rev at 44
135. Kim Lane Scheppele, Congress in Comparative Perspective: Parliamentary Supplements (or Why Democracies Need More Than Parliaments), 89 BU L Rev 795, 810 (2009).
136. See, for example, Confer, 13 Kan J L & Pub Pol at 123-33, 138 (cited in note 44);
137. Issacharoff, 116 Harv L Rev at 644-48 (cited in note 12).
138. See Heather K. Gerken, Getting from Here to There in Election Reform, 34 Okla City U L Rev 33, 33-34 (2009).
139. See also Stephanopoulos, 23 J L & Polit at 342-45
140. See, for example, Gelman and King, 88 Am Polit Sci Rev at 543, 553-54 (cited in note 13);
141. Bernard Grofman and Gary King, The Future of Partisan Symmetry as a Judicial Test for Partisan Gerrymandering after LULAC v. Perry, 6 Election L J 2, 5-6 (2007).
142. See, for example, Issacharoff, 116 Harv L Rev at 598-600 (cited in note 12);
143. Richard H. Pildes, The Constitution and Political Competition, 30 Nova L Rev 253, 254- 56 (2006).
144. Mark Tushnet, How (and How Not) to Use Comparative Constitutional Law in Basic Constitutional Law Courses, 49 SLU L J 671, 673 (2005).
145. See Dixon, 56 Am J Comp L at 956-57 (cited in note 17);
146. Rosalind Dixon and Eric A. Posner, The Limits of Constitutional Convergence, 11 Chi J Intl L 399, 413 (2011)
147. See, for example, Vieth, 541 US at 301 (Stevens) (plurality) (arguing against "regular insertion of the judiciary into districting");
148. Holder v Hall, 512 US 874, 892 (1994) (Thomas concurring);
149. Colegrove, 328 US at 556 (1946)
150. See, for example, Daniel H. Lowenstein and Jonathan Steinberg, The Quest for Legislative Districting in the Public Interest: Elusive or Illusory?, 33 UCLA L Rev 1, 4, 75 (1985);
151. Nathaniel Persily, In Defense of Foxes Guarding Hen Houses: The Case for Judicial Acquiescence to Incumbent-Protecting Gerrymanders, 116 Harv L Rev 649, 680-81 (2002);
152. Peter H. Schuck, The Thickest Thicket: Partisan Gerrymandering and Judicial Regulation of Politics, 87 Colum L Rev 1325, 1325-30 (1987).
153. See Courtney, Commissioned Ridings at 152, 173
154. Rave, 126 Harv L Rev at 733
155. Dixon v British Columbia (A.G.), 59 DLR 4th 247, 259 (BC S Ct 1989) (Canada).
156. See also Vieth, 541 US at 271 n 1
157. See Joshua Fougere, Stephen Ansolabehere, and Nathaniel Persily, Partisanship, Public Opinion, and Redistricting, 9 Election L J 325, 335 (2010)
158. See James B. Cottrill, Redistricting Reform and Political Efficacy: Do Nonlegislative Approaches to Redistricting Enhance Voter Engagement and Participation? *16-19
159. See Gelman and King, 88 Am Polit Sci Rev at 544-45
160. See also Bruce E. Cain, John I. Hanley, and Michael P. McDonald, Redistricting and Electoral Competitiveness in State Legislative Elections 13 (working paper, Apr 13, 2007)
161. See Gelman and King, 88 Am Polit Sci Rev at 552 (cited in note 13);
162. Vladimir Kogan and Eric McGhee, Redistricting California: An Evaluation of the Citizens Commission Final Plans, 4 Cal J Polit & Pol art 2, 22-24 (Jan 2012), online at http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/cjpp.2012.4.issue-1/1944- 4370.1197/19444370.1197.xml?format=INT (visited May 11, 2013)
163. See Simon Jackman, Measuring Electoral Bias: Australia, 1949-93, 24 Brit J Polit Sci 319, 345 (1994).
164. See also Butler and Cain, 4 Electoral Stud at 205
165. See Jackman, 24 Brit J Polit Sci at 344-45
166. Graeme Orr and Ron Levy, Electoral Malapportionment: Partisanship, Rhetoric and Reform in the Shadow of the Agrarian Strong-Man, 18 Griffith L Rev 638, 639, 649, 659 (2009).
167. See Alan Siaroff, Electoral Bias in Quebec Since 1936, 4 Can Polit Sci Rev 62, 66-67 (2010)
168. Christensen, 5 Japanese J Polit Sci at 268
169. See Gary King, Electoral Responsiveness and Partisan Bias in Multiparty Democracies, 15 Legis Stud Q 159, 173 (1990).
170. See also Cain, Hanley, and McDonald, Redistricting and Electoral Competitiveness at 13 (cited in note 121).
171. See Gelman and King, 88 Am Polit Sci at 543, 549
172. See also Kogan and McGhee, 4 Cal J Polit & Pol at 26
173. See Jackman, 24 Brit J Polit Sci at 350
174. See Jackman, 24 Brit J Polit Sci at 350
175. See G. Gudgin and P.J. Taylor, Seats, Votes, and the Spatial Organisation of Elections 132, 167 (Pion Limited 1979).
176. See King, 15 Legis Stud Q at 173 (cited in note 127).
177. See Christensen, 5 Japanese J Polit Sci at 269-70
178. Jamie L. Carson and Michael H. Crespin, The Effect of State Redistricting Methods on Electoral Competition in United States House of Representatives Races, 4 State Polit & Pol Q 455, 461-62 (2004).
179. See James B. Cottrill, The Effects of Non-legislative Approaches to Redistricting on Competition in Congressional Elections, 44 Polity 32, 37-40 (2012).
180. See Seth E. Masket, Jonathan Winburn, and Gerald C. Wright, The Gerrymanderers Are Coming! Legislative Redistricting Won't Affect Competition or Polarization Much, No Matter Who Does It, 45 Polit Sci & Pol 39, 41-42 (2012).
181. See also Cain, Hanley, and McDonald, Redistricting and Electoral Competitiveness at *15
182. Peter Miller and Bernard Grofman, Redistricting Commissions in the Western United States, 27-29
183. See, for example, Elmendorf, 80 NYU L Rev at 1378-79 (cited in note 12);
184. Lowenstein and Steinberg, 33 UCLA L Rev at 73 (cited in note 114);
185. Persily, 116 Harv L Rev at 674
186. Regina v Boundary Commission for England, [1983] 1 QB at 615.
187. Ron Johnston, et al, From Votes to Seats: The Operation of the UK Electoral System Since 1945 93 (Manchester 2001);
188. Iain McLean, Apportionment and the Boundary Commission for England, 11 Electoral Stud 293, 306 (1992)
189. Murphy, IEHC 185 at 7.5.
190. See also Coakley, Electoral Redistricting in Ireland at 164 (cited in note 54);
191. Katz, Malapportionment at 255 (cited in note 48).
192. John C. Courtney, Parliament and Representation: The Unfinished Agenda of Electoral Redistributions, 21 Can J Polit Sci 675, 677 (1988).
193. See also Charles Paul Hoffman, The Gerrymander and the Commission: Drawing Electoral Districts in the United States and Canada, 31 Manitoba L J 331, 348-49 (2005).
194. See Lowenstein and Steinberg, 33 UCLA L Rev at 73
195. See also Beth Bowden and Lloyd Falck, Redistribution and Representation: New Zealand's New Electoral System and the Role of the Political Commissioners, in Iain McLean and David Butler, eds, Fixing the Boundaries: Defining and Redefining Single-Member Electoral Districts 147, 164 (Dartmouth 1996);
196. McRobie, New Zealand's Electoral Redistribution Practices at 27 (cited in note 65).
197. See Lowenstein and Steinberg, 33 UCLA L Rev at 71-73 (cited in note 114).
198. See Jonathan Rodden, The Geographic Distribution of Political Preferences, 13 Ann Rev Polit Sci 321, 332 (2010)
199. See, for example, Gelman and King, 88 Am Polit Sci Rev at 556-57
200. Jackman, 24 Brit J Polit Sci at 350
201. See Jackman, 24 Brit J Polit Sci at 346
202. Ron Johnston, David Rossiter, and Charles Pattie, Disproportionality and Bias in the Results of the 2005 General Election in Great Britain: Evaluating the Electoral System's Impact, 16 J Elections, Pub Op & Parties 37, 39 (2006)
203. Persily, 116 Harv L Rev at 679
204. See also Orr, The Law of Politics at 34
205. Rossiter, Johnston, and Pattie, The Boundary Commissions at 225-331
206. Bowden and Falck, Redistribution and Representation at 159
207. John C. Courtney, Redistricting: What the United States Can Learn from Canada, 3 Election L J 488, 493 (2004)
208. Consider Scheppele, 89 BU L Rev at 819
209. Wesberry v Sanders, 376 US 1, 7-8 (1964).
210. See also Karcher v Daggett, 462 US 725, 730-31 (1983);
211. White v Weiser, 412 US 783, 790 (1973).
212. See NCSL, Redistricting at 57-58 (cited in note 4).
213. See, for example, Brown v Thomson, 462 US 835, 842 (1983);
214. Connor v Finch, 431 US 407, 418 (1977).
215. See, for example, Cox v Larios, 542 US 947, 949-50 (2004)
216. See, for example, Rogers v Lodge, 458 US 613, 622-27 (1982);
217. White v Regester, 412 US 755, 765-70 (1973).
218. See, for example, Miller v Johnson, 515 US 900, 916 (1995);
219. Shaw v Reno, 509 US 630, 649 (1993).
220. See Stephanopoulos, 160 U Pa L Rev at 1419-21
221. See Thornburg v Gingles, 478 US 30, 48-51 (1986) (Brennan).
222. See 42 USC § 1973c(a).
223. See 42 USC § 1973c(b).
224. See NCSL, Redistricting at 172-217 (cited in note 4) (listing all state law redistricting criteria as of 2009).
225. See Handley, A Comparative Survey at 273 (cited in note 10).
226. See Equal Population in Redistricting (ACE Electoral Knowledge Network), online at http://aceproject.org/ace-en/topics/bd/bdb/bdb05/bdb05a (visited May 11, 2013).
227. See also David Samuels and Richard Snyder, The Value of a Vote: Malapportionment in Comparative Perspective, 31 Brit J Polit Sci 651, 660-61 (2001)
228. See Handley, A Comparative Survey at 273
229. See Reference re: Order in Council O.C. 91/91 in Respect of the Electoral Boundaries Commission Act (1991), 86 DLR 4th 447, 6-8
230. See 1991 Saskatchewan Reference Case, 2 SCR 158, 44 (S Ct 1991) (Canada).
231. See also Graeme Orr, Bryan Mercurio, and George Williams, Australian Electoral Law: A Stocktake, 2 Election L J 383, 391 (2003).
232. See McGinty v Western Australia, 186 CLR 140, 165 (High Ct 1996) (Australia) (Brennan).
233. See McKinlay v Commonwealth, 135 CLR 1, 33 (High Ct 1975) (Australia) (Barwick).
234. See McGinty, 186 CLR at 165 (Brennan).
235. See McKinlay, 135 CLR at 20 (Barwick).
236. See McGinty, 186 CLR at 245-46 (McHugh).
237. See McKinlay, 135 CLR at 45 (Gibbs).
238. See also Nicholas Aroney, Democracy, Community, and Federalism in Electoral Apportionment Cases: The United States, Canada, and Australia in Comparative Perspective, 58 U Toronto L J 421, 465 (2008).
239. See Regina v Boundary Commission for England, [1983] 1 QB 600, 635-37 (1983).
240. See Baker v Carr, 369 US 186, 305 (1962) (Frankfurter dissenting);
241. Rossiter, Johnston, and Pattie, The Boundary Commissions at 83 (cited in note 46).
242. See 1991 Saskatchewan Reference Case, 2 SCR at 34
243. See also Dixon v British Columbia (AG), 59 DLR 4th 247, 85 (BC S Ct 1989)
244. 1991 Saskatchewan Reference Case, 2 SCR at 28, 31.
245. See also Daly, 21 BC Intl & Comp L Rev at 261
246. 1991 Saskatchewan Reference Case, 2 SCR at 31.
247. See also McGinty, 186 CLR at 186-87 (Dawson)
248. See Yash Ghai, Hong Kong's New Constitutional Order: The Resumption of Chinese Sovereignty and the Basic Law 233-34 (Hong Kong 1997)
249. Marian Sawer, Representing Trees, Acres, Voters and Non-voters: Concepts of Parliamentary Representation in Australia, in Marian Sawer and Gianni Zappalà, eds, Speaking for the People: Representation in Australian Politics 36, 41 (Melbourne 2001)
250. See Butler and Cain, Congressional Redistricting at 119 (cited in note 48);
251. R.J. Johnston, Constituency Redistribution in Britain, in Grofman and Lijphart, eds, Electoral Laws and Their Political Consequences 277, 279-80 (cited in note 11).
252. Ron Johnston and Charles Pattie, From the Organic to the Arithmetic: New Redistricting/Redistribution Rules for the United Kingdom, 11 Election L J 70, 70 (2012).
253. Case to Seek Nullification of an Election, 52 Minshu 1373 (Saiko Saibansho, Sept 2, 1998) (Japan).
254. Claim for the Invalidity of an Election, 53 Minshu 1704 (Saiko Saibansho, Nov 10, 1999)
255. See Courtney, 3 Election L J at 493
256. Alan Stewart, Community of Interest in Redistricting, in David Small, ed, Drawing the Map 117, 134 (Dundurn 1991)
257. See Royal Commission on Electoral Reform and Party Financing, 1 Reforming Electoral Democracy at 9, 136-37, 149, 157-58 (cited in note 45).
258. See Courtney, Commissioned Ridings at 135 (cited in note 66);
259. Stewart, Community of Interest in Redistricting at 151-68 (cited in note 199).
260. See also Keith Archer, Conflict and Confusion in Drawing Constituency Boundaries: The Case of Alberta, 19 Can Pub Pol 177, 189 (1993).
261. See also Rod Medew, Redistribution in Australia: The Importance of One Vote, One Value, in Handley and Grofman, eds, Redistricting at 97, 103
262. Butler and Cain, 4 Electoral Stud at 200
263. Donald P. Kommers, The Constitutional Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany 194 (Duke 1997)
264. McRobie, An Independent Commission at 36
265. Aroney, 58 U Toronto L J at 422
266. See also Michael Maley, Trevor Morling, and Robin Bell, Alternative Ways of Redistricting with Single-Member Seats: The Case of Australia, in McLean and Butler, eds, Fixing the Boundaries 119, 138
267. McKinlay, 135 CLR at 37 (McTiernan and Jacobs).
268. See also In re Senate Joint Resolution of Legislative Apportionment 1176, 83 S3d 597, 639 (Fla 2012);
269. Hickel v SE Conference, 846 P2d 38, 45 (Alaska 1992)
270. See James A. Gardner, How to Do Things with Boundaries: Redistricting and the Construction of Politics, 11 Election L J 399, 407 (2012).
271. See Gardner, 37 Rutgers L J at 960-61 (cited at note 39).
272. See Gardner, 11 Election L J at 408 (cited in note 210).
273. See Heather K. Gerken, Second-Order Diversity, 118 Harv L Rev 1099, 1161 (2005).
274. See, for example, Bruce E. Cain, Simple vs. Complex Criteria for Partisan Gerrymandering: A Comment on Niemi and Grofman, 33 UCLA L Rev 213, 214-16 (1985);
275. Grofman, 33 UCLA L Rev at 79-93 (cited in note 44);
276. Lowenstein and Steinberg, 33 UCLA L Rev at 12-35
277. See Johnston, et al, Votes to Seats at 61
278. Bruce E. Cain, Karin Mac Donald, and Michael McDonald, From Equality to Fairness: The Path of Political Reform since Baker v. Carr, in Thomas E. Mann and Bruce E. Cain, eds, Party Lines: Competition, Partisanship, and Congressional Redistricting 6, 8 (Brookings 2005);
279. Michael W. McConnell, The Redistricting Cases: Original Mistakes and Current Consequences, 24 Harv J L & Pub Pol 103, 112 (2000).
280. See Micah Altman, Traditional Districting Principles: Judicial Myths vs. Reality, 22 Soc Sci Hist 159, 187 (1998).
281. See Boundary Commission, A Guide to the 2012 Review at 11
282. David Rossiter, Ron Johnston, and Charles Pattie, Representing People and Representing Places: Community, Continuity and the Current Redistribution of Parliamentary Constituencies, 66 Parliamentary Affairs 19 (forthcoming 2013), online at http://pa.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/07/03/pa.gss037.full. pdf (visited May 11, 2013)
283. See Gerken, 118 Harv L Rev at 1132 n 86
284. See American Community Survey: 2009 Data Release (US Census Bureau Dec 14, 2010), online at http://www.census.gov/acs/www/data-documentation/2009- release (visited May 11, 2013).
285. See Bernard Grofman and Lisa Handley, Preconditions for Black and Hispanic Congressional Success, in Wilma Rule and Joseph F. Zimmerman, eds, United States Electoral Systems: Their Impact on Women and Minorities 31, 35 (Praeger 1992)
286. See League of United Latin American Citizens v Perry, 548 US 399, 432-34 (2006)
287. T. Alexander Aleinikoff and Samuel Issacharoff, Race and Redistricting: Drawing Constitutional Lines after Shaw v. Reno, 92 Mich L Rev 588, 601 (1993).
288. See Stephanopoulos, 125 Harv L Rev at 1939 (cited in note 14).
289. See also Scott Clifford, Reassessing the Unequal Representation of Latinos and African Americans, 74 J Polit 903, 906-08 (2012)
290. Shaw, 509 US at 635-36.
291. Miller, 515 US at 908.
292. See Easley v Cromartie, 532 US 234, 250 (2001);
293. Lawyer v Department of Justice, 521 US 567, 581 (1997).
294. See Stephanopoulos, 125 Harv L Rev at 1929-30
295. Adam B. Cox and Richard T. Holden, Reconsidering Racial and Partisan Gerrymandering, 78 U Chi L Rev 553, 567-72 (2011).
296. See Stephanopoulos, 125 Harv L Rev at 1964-67
297. Balinski, Redistricting in France at 178
298. See Stephanopoulos, 125 Harv L Rev at 1964-67
299. See, for example, Gregory R. Weiher, The Fractured Metropolis: Political Fragmentation and Metropolitan Segregation 100-01 (SUNY 1991);
300. Richard Briffault, Our Localism: Part II-Localism and Legal Theory, 90 Colum L Rev 346, 353-54 (1990);
301. Jerry Frug, The Geography of Community, 48 Stan L Rev 1047, 1047 (1996);
302. Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, Suburbanization and Segregation in U.S. Metropolitan Areas, 94 Am J Soc 592, 593-94 (1988).
303. Weiher, The Fractured Metropolis at 190
304. See, for example, Bernadette Hanlon, A Typology of Inner-ring Suburbs: Class, Race, and Ethnicity in U.S. Suburbia, 8 City & Community 221, 231-42 (2009);
305. Brian A. Mikelbank, A Typology of U.S. Suburban Places, 15 Housing Pol Debate 935, 949-57 (2004);
306. Thomas J. Vicino, Bernadette Hanlon, and John Rennie Short, Megalopolis 50 Years On: The Transformation of a City Region, 31 Intl J Urb & Regional Rsrch 344, 357-61 (2007).
307. http://www.mncourts.gov/documents/0/Public/Court-Information-Office/ redistrictingpanel/Final-Legislative-Order.pdf
308. See Maley, Morling, and Bell, Alternative Ways of Redistricting at 138
309. 1991 Saskatchewan Reference Case, 2 SCR at 55.
310. See also 1991 Alberta Reference Case, 86 DLR 4th at 40;
311. See Courtney, Commissioned Ridings at 215
312. Federal Election Boundaries Commission for New Brunswick, Report 12 (2003), online at http://www.elections.ca/scripts/fedrep/newbruns/report/ 13000report-e.pdf (visited May 11, 2013).
313. See also 1994 Alberta Reference Case, 119 DLR 4th at 17
314. See Nathaniel Persily, When Judges Carve Democracies: A Primer on Court- Drawn Redistrictring Plans, 73 Geo Wash L Rev 1131, 1158 (2005)
315. See Ernest C. Reock Jr, Measuring Compactness as a Requirement of Legislative Apportionment, 5 Midwest J of Polit Sci 70- 74 (1961);
316. Daniel D. Polsby and Robert D. Popper, The Third Criterion: Compactness as a Procedural Safeguard Against Partisan Gerrymandering, 9 Yale L & Pol Rev 301, 336 (1991).
317. See also Ron Levy, Drawing Boundaries: Election Law Fairness and Its Democratic Consequences, in Joo-Cheong Tham, Brian Costar, and Graeme Orr, eds, Electoral Democracy: Australian Prospects 57, 61-62 (Melbourne 2011)
318. Gardner, 11 Election L J at 417
319. See Cox and Holden, 78 U Chi L Rev at 567-72 (cited at note 228).
320. See Jonathan Winburn, The Realities of Redistricting 9, 200-01 (Lexington 2008);
321. Todd Makse, Defining Communities of Interest in Redistricting through Initiative Voting, 11 Election L J 503, 508-510 (2012);
322. Stephanopoulos, 160 U Pa L Rev at 1460-62
323. Stephanopoulos, 125 Harv L Rev at 1964-67
324. See Richard Forgette, Andrew Garner, and John Winkle, Do Redistricting Principles and Practices Affect U.S. State Legislative Electoral Competition?, 9 State Polit & Pol Q 151, 162, 164 (2009)
325. Kogan and McGhee, 4 Cal J Polit & Pol at 22-24
326. Stephanopoulos, 160 U Pa L Rev at 1460-62
327. Stephanopoulos, 125 Harv L Rev at 1964-67
328. See Richard G. Niemi, Lynda W. Powell, and Patricia L. Bicknell, The Effects of Congruity between Community and District on Salience of U.S. House Candidates, 11 Legis Stud Q 187, 193 (1986)
329. Jonathan Winburn and Michael W. Wagner, Carving Voters Out: Redistricting's Influence on Political Information, Turnout, and Voting Behavior, 63 Polit Rsrch Q 373, 379 (2010) (same).
330. See David E. Campbell, Why We Vote: How Schools and Communities Shape Our Civic Life 23-24 (Princeton 2006)
331. Stephanopoulos, 160 U Pa L Rev at 1464-1467
332. Stephanopoulos, 125 Harv L Rev at 1941-45
333. See Stephanopoulos, 160 U Pa L Rev at 1464-67
334. See Courtney, Commissioned Ridings at 210-11 (cited in note 66);
335. Stewart, Community of Interest in Redistricting at 145-46 (cited in note 199).
336. See also Royal Commission on Electoral Reform and Party Financing, 1 Reforming Electoral Democracy at 149
337. See Robert D. Putnam, E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-First Century, 30 Scandinavian Polit Stud 137, 147-51 (2007).
338. See also Campbell, Why We Vote at 48 (cited in note 251);
339. Alberto Alesina and Eliana La Ferrara, Participation in Heterogeneous Communities, 115 Q J Econ 847, 848 (2000).
340. See Niemi, Powell, and Bicknell, 11 Legis Stud Q at 198 (cited in note 250);
341. Winburn and Wagner, 63 Polit Res Q at 375 (cited in note 250).
342. See also Alan Frizzell, In the Public Service, in Small, ed, Drawing the Map 251, 258
343. See Michael Bailey and David W. Brady, Heterogeneity and Representation: The Senate and Free Trade, 42 Am J Polit Sci 524, 537 (1998)
344. Stephanopoulos, 125 Harv L Rev at 1945- 47
345. See Benjamin G. Bishin, Jay K. Dow, and James Adams, Does Democracy "Suffer" from Diversity? Issue Representation and Diversity in Senate Elections, 129 Pub Choice 201, 206-10 (2006)
346. Elisabeth R. Gerber and Jeffrey B. Lewis, Beyond the Median: Voter Preferences, District Heterogeneity, and Political Representation, 112 J Polit Econ 1364, 1376-78 (2004)
347. See Bailey and Brady, 42 Am J Polit Sci at 537
348. Bishin, Dow, and Adams, 129 Pub Choice at 206-10
349. Gerber and Lewis, 112 J Polit Econ at 1376-78
350. Stephanopoulos, 125 Harv L Rev at 1945-47
351. See Thomas L. Brunell, Redistricting and Representation: Why Competitive Elections are Bad for America 26-28 (Routledge 2008);
352. J. Vincent Buck and Bruce E. Cain, British MPs in Their Constituencies, 15 Legis Stud Q 127, 138 (1990).
353. See also Richard F. Fenno Jr, Home Style: House Members in Their Districts 2-6 (Little, Brown 1978) (reporting similar findings for US House members);
354. Malcolm E. Jewell, Representation in State Legislatures 55-59, 115-17 (Kentucky 1982)
355. See Bailey and Brady, 42 Am J Polit Sci at 525-26 (cited in note 258)
356. Gerber and Lewis, 112 J Polit Econ at 1376-78
357. Stephanopoulos, 125 Harv L Rev at 1945-47
358. See Stephanopoulos, 125 Harv L Rev at 1945-47
359. See also James M. Snyder Jr and David Strömberg, Press Coverage and Political Accountability, 118 J Polit Econ 355, 395-99 (2010)
360. See also Arizona Minority Coalition for Fair Redistricting v Arizona Independent Redistricting Commission, 2004 WL 5330049
361. Karin Mac Donald and Bruce E. Cain, Community of Interest Methodology and Public Testimony 23
362. See Courtney, Commissioned Ridings at 214
363. Stewart, Community of Interest in Redistricting at 141
364. Rossiter, Johnston, and Pattie, The Boundary Commissions at 393-95
365. See also Ron Johnston, David Rossiter, and Charles Pattie, 'Far Too Elaborate about So Little': New Parliamentary Constituencies for England, 61 Parliamentary Affairs 4, 16 (2007)
366. See Stephanopoulos, 160 U Pa L Rev at 1395-97, 1399-1404
367. Michael S. Kang, Race and Democratic Contestation, 117 Yale L J 734, 791-92 (2008).
368. See Jonathan S. Krasno, Challengers, Competition, and Reelection 62, 69 (1994);
369. Jon R. Bond, The Influence of Constituency Diversity on Electoral Competition in Voting for Congress, 1974-1978, 8 Legis Stud Q 201, 206 (1983);
370. William Koetzle, The Impact of Constituency Diversity upon the Competitiveness of U.S. House Elections, 1962-96, 23 Legis Stud Q 561, 564 (1998).
371. See Robert E. Hogan, Sources of Competition in State Legislative Primary Elections, 28 Legis Stud Q 103, 115 (2003);
372. Tom W. Rice, Gubernatorial and Senatorial Primary Elections: Determinants of Competition, 13 Am Polit Rsrch 427, 438 (1985).
373. See Paul Gronke, The Electorate, the Campaign, and the Office: A Unified Approach to Senate and House Elections 97 (Michigan 2000);
374. Jon R. Bond, Cary Covington, and Richard Fleisher, Explaining Challenger Quality in Congressional Elections, 47 J Polit 510, 525 (1985);
375. Michael J. Ensley, Michael W. Tofias, and Scott de Marchi, District Complexity as an Advantage in Congressional Elections, 53 Am J Polit Sci 990, 998 (2009).
376. Putnam, 30 Scan Polit Stud at 150-51
377. See Bond, Covington, and Fleisher, 47 J Polit at 527
378. Ensley, Tofias, and de Marchi, 53 Am J Polit Sci at 1000 (cited in note 275).
379. See Niemi, Powell, and Bicknell, 11 Legis Stud Q at 198 (cited in note 250);
380. Winburn and Wagner, 63 Polit Rsrch Q at 381-83
381. See Niemi, Powell, and Bicknell, 11 Legis Stud Q at 193
382. See also James E. Campbell, John R. Alford, and Keith Henry, Television Markets and Congressional Elections, 9 Legis Stud Q 665, 673-74 (1984)
383. Dena Levy and Peverill Squire, Television Markets and the Competitiveness of U.S. House Elections, 25 Legis Stud Q 313, 321 (2000)
384. See Edmund Burke, Speech to the Electors of Bristol (Nov 3, 1774), in Philip B. Kurland and Ralph Lerner, eds, 1 The Founders' Constitution 361 (Chicago 1987).
385. Gardner, 37 Rutgers L J at 957
386. See Gerken, 118 Harv L Rev at 1125
387. See Stephanopoulos, 125 Harv L Rev at 1947-49
388. Shaw, 509 US at 647.
389. See Royal Commission on Electoral Reform and Party Financing, 1 Reforming Electoral Democracy at 11, 184 (cited in note 45).
390. See Stephanopoulos, 160 U Pa L Rev at 1419-21
391. See Courtney, Commissioned Ridings at 221
392. See Stephanopoulos, 160 U Pa L Rev at 1419-21
393. See also Shaw, 509 US at 646
394. See Gerken, 118 Harv L Rev at 1102
395. See Edward Glaeser and Jacob Vigdor, The End of the Segregated Century: Racial Separation in America's Neighborhoods, 1890-2010 4 (Manhattan Institute 2012).
396. John Stuart Mill, Representative Government, in Millicent Garret Fawcett, ed, Three Essays by John Stuart Mill 143, 252 (Oxford 1960).
397. See Bartlett v Strickland, 556 US 1, 14-20 (2009).
398. Thornburg v Gingles, 478 US 30, 48-51 (1986) (Brennan).
399. See Adam B. Cox and Thomas J. Miles, Judicial Ideology and the Transformation of Voting Rights Jurisprudence, 75 U Chi L Rev 1493, 1504 (2008)
400. See 42 USC § 1973c.
401. See, for example, Georgia v Ashcroft, 539 US 461, 477 (2003).
402. http://www.ethnicmajority.com/congress.htm
403. See Stephanopoulos, 160 U Pa L Rev at 1463-64
404. See also David T. Canon, Electoral Systems and the Representation of Minority Interests in Legislatures, 24 Legis Stud Q 331, 339 (1999)
405. Shelby County, Alabama v Holder, 679 F3d 848, 866, 868, 870 (DC Cir 2012)
406. See also Ellen Katz, et al, Documenting Discrimination in Voting: Judicial Findings under Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act Since 1982: Final Report of the Voting Rights Initiative, 39 U Mich J L Ref 643, 654 (2006)
407. Richard L. Engstrom, Modified Multi-seat Election Systems as Remedies for Minority Vote Dilution, 21 Stetson L Rev 743, 749-51, 757-58, 762-68 (1992).
408. See Grofman, 33 UCLA L Rev at 163-64
409. Pamela S. Karlan, Maps and Misreadings: The Role of Geographic Compactness in Racial Vote Dilution Litigation, 24 Harv CR-CL L Rev 173, 223-31 (1989);
410. http://archive.fairvote.org/index.php?page=2101
411. See Grofman, 33 UCLA L Rev at 164 (cited in note 44);
412. Karlan, 24 Harv CR-CL L Rev at 233-36
413. See Paul L. McKaskle, Of Wasted Votes and No Influence: An Essay on Voting Systems in the United States, 35 Houston L Rev 1119, 1160 (1998);
414. See Kenneth Benoit and Kenneth A. Shepsle, Electoral Systems and Minority Representation, in Paul E. Peterson, ed, Classifying by Race 50, 62-63 (Princeton 1995)
415. See Shaun Bowler, Todd Donovan, and David Brockington, Electoral Reform and Minority Representation: Local Experiments with Alternative Elections 96 (Ohio State 2003);
416. Engstrom, 21 Stetson L Rev at 752-62
417. Steven J. Mulroy, The Way out: A Legal Standard for Imposing Alternative Electoral Systems as Voting Rights Remedies, 33 Harv CR-CL L Rev 333, 349 (1998).
418. See First Australian Aboriginal in House of Representatives, BBC News Asia- Pacific (BBC Aug 29, 2010), online at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world- asia-pacific-11125497 (visited May 11, 2013).
419. See also Gianni Zappalà, The Political Representation of Ethnic Minorities: Moving beyond the Mirror, in Sawar and Zappalà, eds, Speaking for the People 134, 144
420. See Must the Rainbow Turn Monochrome in Parliament?, Economist 54 (Oct 27, 2007).
421. See also Karen Bird, The Political Representation of Women and Ethnic Minorities in Established Democracies: A Framework for Comparative Research 25 (Academy of Migration Studies in Denmark Working Paper, 2003), online at http://www.outcome-eng.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Karen-Bird-amidpaper.pdf
422. See Communities of Interest: Delimiting Boundaries (ACE Electoral Knowledge Network), online at http://aceproject.org/ace-en/topics/bd/bdb/bdb05/ bdb05c (visited May 11, 2013).
423. See Courtney, Commissioned Ridings at 103, 175-77, 182-83, 190-91, 225-32
424. See also 1991 Saskatchewan Reference Case, 2 SCR 158, 31 (S Ct 1991)
425. See Courtney, Commissioned Ridings at 103, 225-26
426. See Raiche v Attorney General of Canada, 2004 FC 679, 82 (Fed Ct 2005) (Canada).
427. See also Charlottetown (City) v Prince Edward Island, 142 DLR 4th 343, 39 (PEI S Ct 1996)
428. See Trevor Knight, Electoral Justice for Aboriginal People in Canada, 46 McGill L J 1063, 1065-67 (2001)
429. See Report of the Representation Commission 2007 7-13 (Representation Commission 2007), online at http://www.elections.org.nz/sites/default/files/ 2007%20Representation%20Commission%20Report.pdf (visited May 11, 2013).
430. See Catherine J. Iorns Magallanes, Dedicated Parliamentary Seats for Indigenous Peoples: Political Representation as an Element of Indigenous Self-Determination, 10 Murdoch U Electronic J L 31 (Dec 2003), online at http://www3.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MurUEJL/2003/39.html (visited May 11, 2013);
431. Michael A. Murphy, Representing Indigenous Self-Determination, 58 U Toronto L J 185, 193 (2008).
432. See Jon Fraenkel, The Design of Ethnically Mixed Constituencies in Fiji, 1970- 2006, in Handley and Grofman, eds, Redistricting 123, 124-28 (cited in note 10).
433. See also Andrew Reynolds, Reserved Seats in National Legislatures: A Research Note, 30 Legis Stud Q 301, 304 (2005)
434. http://aceproject.org/ace-en/topics/bd/bdb/bdb05/bdb05d
435. Wendy Singer, A Seat at the Table: Reservations and Representation in India's Electoral System, 11 Election L J 202, 206-09 (2012).
436. See Rohini Pande, Can Mandated Political Representation Increase Policy Influence for Disadvantaged Minorities? Theory and Evidence from India, 93 Am Econ Rev 1132, 1138, 1140 (2003).
437. The World Factbook: Middle East; Jordan (CIA 2012), online at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/jo.html (visited May 11, 2013).
438. See Yash Ghai, Public Participation and Minorities 15 (Minority Rights Group International 2003); Singapore Const Art 39A(2)(a)(ii);
439. N. Ganesan, Entrenching a City- State's Dominant Party System, 1998 SE Asian Affairs 229, 230.
440. See Bassel F. Salloukh, The Limits of Electoral Engineering in Divided Societies: Elections in Postwar Lebanon, 39 Can J Polit Sci 635, 639, 643 (2006).
441. See Royal Commission on Electoral Reform and Party Financing, 1 Reforming Electoral Democracy at 102, 112, 171
442. Judith Squires, Gender and Minority Representation in Parliament, 1 Polit Insight 82, 84 (Dec 2010).
443. See Mala Htun, Is Gender Like Ethnicity? The Political Representation of Identity Groups, 2 Persp on Polit 439, 452 (2004).
444. See Benoit and Shepsle, Electoral Systems and Minority Representation at 73 (cited in note 307);
445. Arend Lijphart, Raphael Lopez Pintor, and Yasunori Sone, The Limited Vote and the Single Nontransferable Vote: Lessons from the Japanese and Spanish Examples, in Grofman and Lijphart, eds, Electoral Laws and Their Political Consequences 154, 155 (cited in note 11);
446. Steven R. Reed and Michael F. Thies, The Consequences of Electoral Reform in Japan, in Shugart and Wattenberg, eds, Mixed-Member Electoral Systems 380, 381 (cited in note 11);
447. John M. Carey, Legislative Voting and Accountability 11 (Cambridge 2009);
448. See Bowler, Donovan, and Brockington, Electoral Reform and Minority Representation at 19 (cited in note 308);
449. George S. Blair, Cumulative Voting: An Effective Electoral Device for Fair and Minority Representation, 219 Annals NY Acad Sci 20, 20 (2006);
450. Shaun Bowler, Todd Donovan, and David M. Farrell, Party Strategy and Voter Organization under Cumulative Voting in Victorian England, 47 Polit Stud 906, 906-07 (1999).
451. See McKaskle, 35 Houston L Rev at 1160
452. Mulroy, 33 Harv CR-CL L Rev at 341
453. Single Transferable Vote (Electoral Reform Society 2012), online at http://www.electoral-reform.org.uk/single-transferable-vote (visited May 11, 2013).
454. See Keith Archer, Representing Aboriginal Interests: Experiences of New Zealand and Australia (Electoral Insight Nov 2003), online at http://www.elections.ca/res/eim/article-search/article.asp?id=%2027&lang= e&frmPageSize=%5B (visited May 11, 2013);
455. Murphy, 58 U Toronto L J at 188-89
456. See Campbell Sharman, The Representation of Small Parties and Independents, Papers on Parliament No. 34-Representation and Institutional Change: Fifty Years of Proportional Representation in the Senate (Parliament of Australia Dec 1990), online at http://www.aph.gov.au/About-Parliament/Senate/ Research-and-Education/pops/pop34/c 13 (visited May 11, 2013).
457. See Richard H. Pildes and Kristen A. Donoghue, Cumulative Voting in the United States, 1995 U Chi Legal F 241, 258
458. See, for example, Benoit and Shepsle, Electoral Systems and Minority Representation at 51 (cited in note 307);
459. Arend Lijphart, Proportionality by Non-PR Methods: Ethnic Representation in Belgium, Cyprus, Lebanon, New Zealand, West Germany, and Zimbabwe, in Grofman and Lijphart, eds, Electoral Laws and Their Political Consequences 113 (cited in note 11);
460. Reynolds, 30 Legis Stud Q at 301 (cited at note 323).
461. See Ghai, Public Participation and Minorities at 16
462. http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-06.pdf
463. See Royal Commission on Electoral Reform and Party Financing, 1 Reforming Electoral Democracy at 10, 170
464. Andrew Geddis, A Dual Track Democracy? The Symbolic Role of the Maori Seats in New Zealand's Electoral System, 5 Election L J 347, 347 (2006)
465. See Richard Briffault, Lani Guinier and the Dilemmas of American Democracy, 95 Colum L Rev 418, 430 (1995)
466. Kent Roach, Chartering the Electoral Map into the Future, in John C. Courtney, Peter MacKinnon, and David E. Smith, eds, Drawing Boundaries: Legislatures, Courts, and Electoral Values 200, 213 (Fifth House 1992)
467. See, for example, Ghai, Public Participation and Minorities at 16-17
468. Alistair McMillan, Delimitation in India, in Handley and Grofman, eds, Redistricting 75, 76
469. Geddis, 5 Election L J at 360-66
470. See Bowler, Donovan, and Brockington, Electoral Reform and Minority Representation at 32-50
471. See Gingles, 478 US at 50 (Brennan).
472. Georgia, 539 US at 491 (Kennedy concurring).
473. Delimitation Commission of India, Changing Face of Electoral India at 5-6, 33
474. See, for example, Ghai, Public Participation and Minorities at 16
475. Geddis, 5 Election L J at 357
476. See Salloukh, 39 Can J Polit Sci at 639-40
477. See Gingles, 478 US at 48-51 (Brennan).
478. See Karlan, 24 Harv CR-CL L Rev at 236
479. Pildes and Donoghue, 1995 U Chi Legal F at 255
480. See Shelby County, 679 F3d at 873
481. Northwest Austin Municipal Utility District Number One v Holder, 557 US 193, 203-05 (2009).
482. See, for example, California Democratic Party v Jones, 530 US 567, 585-86 (2000)
483. Consider Bush v Vera, 517 US 952, 1072 (1996)
484. See generally Briffault, 95 Colum L Rev 418
485. Guinier, 71 Tex L Rev 1589
486. Karlan, 24 Harv CR- CL L Rev 173
487. See Bird, The Political Representation of Women at 7
488. See Gingles, 478 US at 36-37
489. Parliament of Australia, about the Senate (Australia 2012), online at http://www.aph.gov.au/About-Parliament/Senate/About-the-Senate (visited May 11, 2013).
490. See Bowler, Donovan, and Brockington, Electoral Reform and Minority Representation at 95-96 (cited in note 308);
491. Richard L. Engstrom, Delbert A. Taebel, and Richard L. Cole, Cumulative Voting as a Remedy for Minority Vote Dilution: The Case of Alamogordo, New Mexico, 5 J L & Polit 469, 482 (1989)
492. Robert G. Moser, Electoral Systems and the Representation of Ethnic Minorities: Evidence from Russia, 40 Comp Polit 273, 289 (2008)
493. Jessica Trounstine and Melody E. Valdini, The Context Matters: The Effects of Single-Member versus At-Large Districts on City Council Diversity, 52 Am J Polit Sci 554, 563 (2008)
494. See Parliament of New South Wales, Enhancing Aboriginal Political Representation at 53
495. Melissa S. Williams, Sharing the River: Aboriginal Representation in Canadian Political Institutions, in David Laycock, ed, Representation and Democratic Theory 93, 96-98 (British Columbia 2004).
496. Holder v Hall, 512 US 874, 905 (1994)
497. See Briffault, 95 Colum L Rev at 434
498. Karlan, 24 Harv CR-CL L Rev at 236
499. Pildes and Donoghue, 1995 U Chi Legal F at 255
500. See Bowler, Donovan, and Brockington, Electoral Reform and Minority Representation at 98-103 (cited in note 308).
501. Edward Still, Cumulative Voting and Limited Voting in Alabama, in Rule and Zimmerman, eds, United States Electoral Systems 183, 184
502. See Robert Richie, Improving New York City's Community School Board Elections: Testimony to the Citywide Community School Board Elections Committee (Center for Voting and Democracy Dec 2, 1997), online at http://archive. fairvote.org/library/geog/cities/ny-school-board.htm (visited May 11, 2013).
503. See also Douglas J. Amy, Real Choices/New Voices: The Case for Proportional Representation in the United States 138 (Columbia 1993);
504. Benoit and Shepsle, Electoral Systems and Minority Representation at 73
505. Leon Weaver and Judith Baum, Proportional Representation on New York City Community School Boards, in Rule and Zimmerman, eds, United States Electoral Systems 197, 202-03 (cited in note 220).
506. See Lijphart, Pintor, and Sone, The Limited Vote at 167 (cited in note 331)
507. See Enid Lakeman, Comparing Political Opportunities in Great Britain and Ireland, in Wilma Rule and Joseph F. Zimmerman, eds, Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities 45, 52-53 (Greenwood 1994);
508. Rein Taagepera, Beating the Law of Minority Attrition, in Rule and Zimmerman, eds, Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective 235, 240 (cited in note 375).
509. See also Blair, 219 Annals NY Acad Sci at 23
510. See Shelby County, 679 F3d at 872
511. See Bowler, Donovan, and Brockington, Electoral Reform and Minority Representation at 22
512. Steven Mulroy, Alternative, Nondistrict Vote Dilution Remedies under the Voting Rights Act 15
513. http://ssrn.com/abstract=1923777
514. See, for example, Karlan, Maps and Misreadings at 227, 234
515. See Bowler, Donovan, and Brockington, Electoral Reform and Minority Representation at 51-64, 75-91
516. See also Shaun Bowler, David Brockington, and Todd Donovan, Election Systems and Voter Turnout: Experiments in the United States, 63 J Polit 902, 912-13 (2001).
517. See David M. Farrell and Ian McAllister, Voter Satisfaction and Electoral Systems: Does Preferential Voting in Candidate-Centered Systems Make a Difference?, 45 Eur J Polit Rsrch 723, 732, 739 (2006).
518. See Amy, Real Choices/New Voices at 146-47
519. Hall, 512 US at 910 & n 17
520. See Blair, 219 Annals NY Acad Sci at 21-26
521. See, for example, Douglas W. Rae, The Political Consequences of Electoral Laws 128 (Yale 1971)
522. See Richard L. Cole, Delbert A. Taebel, and Richard L. Engstrom, Cumulative Voting in a Municipal Election: A Note on Voter Reactions and Electoral Consequences, 43 W Polit Q 191, 194 (1990).
523. See Robert R. Brischetto and Richard L. Engstrom, Cumulative Voting and Latino Representation: Exit Surveys in Fifteen Texas Communities, 78 Soc Sci Q 973, 978-79 (1997).
524. See Richard L. Engstrom and Charles J. Barrilleaux, Native Americans and Cumulative Voting: The Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux, 72 Soc Sci Q 388, 391 (1991).
525. See also Brischetto and Engstrom, 78 Soc Sci Q at 980
526. Engstrom and Barrilleaux, 72 Soc Sci Q at 391
527. Pildes and Donoghue, 1995 U Chi Legal F at 273-74
528. See David Brockington, et al, Minority Representation under Cumulative and Limited Voting, 60 J Polit 1108, 1112 (1998);
529. Karlan, 24 Harv CR-CL L Rev at 230
530. See also Brischetto and Engstrom, 78 Soc Sci Q at 984
531. See Engstrom, 21 Stetson L Rev at 767
532. Pildes and Donoghue, 1995 U Chi Legal F at 299
533. See Bowler, Donovan, and Farrell, 47 Polit Stud at 911-12
534. Lijphart, Pintor, and Sone, The Limited Vote at 159-63
535. See Karlan, 24 Harv CR-CL L Rev at 230
536. Pildes and Donoghue, 1995 U Chi Legal F at 256-57
537. See also Davis v Bandemer, 478 US 109, 144-45 (1986)
538. See Brockington, et al, 60 J Polit at 1111
539. Engstrom, 21 Stetson L Rev at 752-62
540. See Blair, 219 Annals NY Acad Sci at 21-26
541. See Pildes and Donoghue, 1995 U Chi Legal F at 291-94
542. See also Lani Guinier, The Representation of Minority Interests, in Peterson, ed, Classifying by Race 21, 21
543. Bowler, Donovan, and Brockington, Electoral Reform at 41
544. See Lijphart, Pintor, and Sone, The Limited Vote at 164, 167
545. Greg D. Adams, Legislative Effects of Single-Member vs. Multi-member Districts, 40 Am J Polit Sci 129, 140 (1996).
546. See also Gary W. Cox, Centripetal and Centrifugal Incentives in Electoral Systems, 34 Am J Polit Sci 903, 927 (1990)
547. See Richard H. Pildes, Why the Center Does Not Hold: The Causes of Hyperpolarized Democracy in America, 99 Calif L Rev 273, 276-81 (2011).
548. Adams, 40 Am J Polit Sci at 141-42
549. See generally Stephanopoulos, 23 J L & Polit 331
550. See also Vladimir Kogan and Thad Kousser, Great Expectations and the California Citizens Redistricting Commission, in Moncrief, ed, Reapportionment and Redistricting 219, 227
551. Nicholas O. Stephanopoulos, A Fighting Chance for Redistricting, LA Times A21 (Sept 27, 2008).
552. See, for example, Courtney, Commissioned Ridings at 36-56
553. See Issacharoff, 116 Harv L Rev at 646-47
554. Issacharoff, 71 Tex L Rev at 1690
555. See also 1994 Alberta Reference Case, 119 DLR 4th 1, 19 (Alberta App 1993)
556. See also Vieth v Jubelirer, 541 US 267, 275 (2004)
557. See 2 USC § 2c.
558. See Vieth, 541 US at 276.
559. See Stephanopoulos, 23 J L & Polit at 345-77
560. See Stephanopoulos, 160 U Pa L Rev at 1413-24
561. See also United States v Village of Port Chester, 704 F Supp 2d 411, 448-49 (SDNY 2010)
562. See NCSL, Redistricting at 160