Combined dyslipidemia: Should the focus be LDL cholesterol or atherogenic dyslipidemia?

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 19, Issue 21, 2013, Pages 3858-3868

  Rizzo, Manfredi ^a,b,c   Barylski, Marcin ^d   Rizvi, Ali A ^c   Montalto, Giuseppe ^a   Mikhailidis, Dimitri P ^e   Banach, Maciej ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PALERMO   (Italy)

^b Euro Mediterranean Institute of Science and Technology   (Italy)

^c UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF LODZ   (Poland)

^e ROYAL FREE AND UNIVERSITY COLLEGE MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cholesterol; Combined dyslipidemia; Dense low density lipoprotein; High density lipoprotein cholesterol; Low density lipoprotein cholesterol; Non high density lipoprotein cholesterol; Small

Indexed keywords

BILE ACID SEQUESTRANT; EZETIMIBE; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; NICOTINIC ACID;

ARTICLE; ATHEROGENESIS; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; DRUG TARGETING; DYSLIPIDEMIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; TREATMENT INDICATION;

ANIMALS; APOLIPOPROTEINS B; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHOLESTEROL, HDL; CHOLESTEROL, LDL; DYSLIPIDEMIAS; HUMANS; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; RISK FACTORS; TRIGLYCERIDES;

EID: 84878659487     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: 18734286     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/13816128113199990324     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) (2002) Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation 2002; 106: 3143-421.
2. Genest J Jr, McNamara JR, Ordovas JM, et al. Lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoprotein A-I and B and lipoprotein (a) abnormalities in men with premature coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 1992; 19: 792-802.
3. Banach M, Davidson M, Toth PP. Polish Lipid Association--a strong response to the problem of lipid disorders in Poland and Central and Eastern Europe. J Clin Lipidol 2012; 6: 105-7.
4. Banach M, Mikhailidis DP, Kjeldsen SE, Rysz J. Time for new indications for statins? Med Sci Monit 2009; 15: MS1-5.
5. Krauss RM, Burke DJ. Identification of multiple subclasses of plasma low density lipoproteins in normal humans. J Lipid Res 1982; 23: 97-104.
6. Mark L, Paragh G, Karadi I, Reiber I, Pados G. Changes in attainment of lipid goals by general practitioners and specialists in patients at high cardiovascular risk in Hungary during 2004-2008. Arch Med Sci 2010; 6: 695-700.
7. Lamarche B, Tchernof A, Moorjani S, et al. Small, dense lowdensity lipoprotein particles as a predictor of the risk of ischemic heart disease in men. Prospective results from the Quebec Cardiovascular Study. Circulation 1997; 95: 69-75.
8. Fiévet C, Staels B. Combination therapy of statins and fibrates in the management of cardiovascular risk. Curr Opin Lipidol 2009; 20(6): 505-11.
9. ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: the Task Force for the management of dyslipidaemias of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS). Eur Heart J 2011; 32: 1769-818.
10. St-Pierre AC, Ruel IL, Cantin B, et al. Comparison of various electrophoretic characteristics of LDL particles and their relationship to the risk of ischemic heart disease. Circulation 2001; 104: 2295-9.
11. Seneff S, Wainwright G, Mascitelli L. Is the metabolic syndrome caused by a high fructose, and relatively low fat, low cholesterol diet? Arch Med Sci 2011; 7: 8-20.
12. Katsiki N, Mikhailidis DP, Banach M. Effects of statin treatment on endothelial function, oxidative stress and inflammation in patients with arterial hypertension and normal cholesterol levels. J Hypertens 2011; 29: 2493-4.
13. Davidson MH, Ballantyne CM, Jacobson TA, et al. Clinical utility of inflammatory markers and advanced lipoprotein testing: advice from an expert panel of lipid specialists. J Clin Lipidol 2011; 5: 338-67.
14. Rizzo M, Berneis K. Should we measure routinely the LDL peak particle size? Int J Cardiol 2006; 107:147-51.
15. Rosenson RS, Otvos JD, Freedman DS. Relations of lipoprotein subclass levels and low-density lipoprotein size to progression of coronary artery disease in the pravastatin limitation of atherosclerosis in the coronary arteries (PLAC-I) trial. Am J Cardiol 2002; 90: 89-94.
16. Oh RC, Lanier JB. Management of hypertriglyceridemia. Am Fam Physician 2007; 75: 1365-71.
17. Kolovou GD, Anagnostopoulou KK, Kostakou PM, Bilianou H, Mikhailidis DP. Primary and secondary hypertriglyceridaemia. Curr Drug Targets 2009; 10: 336-43.
18. Mark L, Paragh G, Karadi I, Reiber I, Pados G, Kiss Z. An attempt to make lipid-lowering therapy more effective in Hungary. The results of MULTI GAP 2010 and the Plus Program. Arch Med Sci 2011; 7: 760-6.
19. Katsiki N, Mikhailidis DP, Athyros VG, Hatzitolios AI, Karagiannis A, Banach M. Are we getting to lipid targets in real life? Arch Med Sci 2010; 6: 639-41.
20. Cholesterol Treatment Trialists' (CTT) Collaboration. Efficacy and safety of more intensive lowering of LDL cholesterol: a metaanalysis of data from 170000 participants in 26 randomised trials. Lancet 2010; 376: 1670-81.
21. Hayward RA, Krumholz HM. Three reasons to abandon lowdensity lipoprotein targets: an open letter to the Adult Treatment Panel IV of the National Institutes of Health. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes 2012; 5: 2-5.
22. Hayward RA, Krumholz HM, Zulman DM, Timbie JW, Vijan S. Optimizing statin treatment for primary prevention of coronary artery disease. Ann Intern Med 2010; 152: 69-77.
23. Stepien M, Banach M, Mikhailidis DP, Gluba A, Kjeldsen SE, Rysz J. Role and significance of statins in the treatment of hypertensive patients. Curr Med Res Opin 2009; 25: 1995-2005.
24. Brugts JJ, Yetgin T, Hoeks SE, et al. The benefits of statins in people without established cardiovascular disease but with cardiovascular risk factors: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2009; 338: b2376.
25. Mills EJ, Rachlis B, Wu P, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular mortality and events with statin treatments. A network metaanalysis involving more than 65,000 patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 52: 1769-81.
26. Catapano AL. Perspectives on low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol goal achievement. Curr Med Res Opin 2009; 25: 431-47.
27. Smith DG, McBurney CR. An economic analysis of the Atorvastatin Comparative Cholesterol Efficacy and Safety Study (ACCESS). Pharmacoeconomics 2003; 21 (Suppl 1): 13-23.
28. Tyroler HA. Cholesterol and cardiovascular disease. An overview of Lipid Research Clinics (LRC) epidemiologic studies as back ground for the LRC Coronary Primary Prevention Trial. Am J Cardiol 1984; 54: 14C-19C.
29. Rossebø AB, Pedersen TR, Boman K, et al.; SEAS Investigators. Intensive lipid lowering with simvastatin and ezetimibe in aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 1343-56.
30. SHARP Collaborative Group. Study of Heart and Renal Protection (SHARP): randomized trial to assess the effects of lowering lowdensity lipoprotein cholesterol among 9,438 patients with chronic kidney disease. Am Heart J 2010; 160: 785-94.
31. Rizzo M, Battista RG. Ezetimibe, cardiovascular risk and atherogenic dyslipidaemia. Arch Med Sci 2011; 7: 5-7.
32. Shekhar Pandey A, Bissonnette S, Boukas S, Rampakakis E, Sampalis JS. Effectiveness and tolerability of ezetimibe coadministered with statins versus statin dose-doubling in high-risk patients with persistent hyperlipidemia: The EZE(STAT)2 trial. Arch Med Sci 2011; 7: 767-75.
33. Katsiki N, Lioudaki E, Ganotakis ES, Mikhailidis DP. Impact of ezetimibe coadministered with statins on cardiovascular events following acute coronary syndrome: a 3-year population-based retrospective cohort study in Taiwan. Clin Ther 2011; 33: 2091
34. Angelopoulos J, Krassakopoulos N, Nathanson R, Boukas S, Sampalis JS. Co-administration of ezetimibe and a statin in management of dyslipidemias: a meta-analysis of clinical trials. Arch Med Sci 2009; 5: 347-63.
35. Gluba A, Rysz J, Banach M. Statins in patients with chronic kidney disease: why, who and when? Expert Opin Pharmacother 2010; 11: 2665-74
36. West AM, Anderson JD, Meyer CH, et al. The effect of ezetimibe on peripheral arterial atherosclerosis depends upon statin use at baseline. Atherosclerosis 2011; 218: 156-62.
37. Mikhailidis DP, Lawson RW, McCormick AL, et al. Comparative efficacy of the addition of ezetimibe to statin vs statin titration in patients with hypercholesterolaemia: systematic review and metaanalysis. Curr Med Res Opin 2011; 27: 1191-210.
38. Mikhailidis DP, Sibbring GC, Ballantyne CM, Davies GM, Catapano AL. Meta-analysis of the cholesterol-lowering effect of ezetimibe added to ongoing statin therapy. Curr Med Res Opin 2007; 23: 2009-26.
39. Paraskevas KI, Veith FJ, Mikhailidis DP. Carotid intima-media thickness and ezetimibe: the end of a misunderstanding? Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2011; 9: 381-84.
40. Nicholls SJ. The AIM-HIGH (Atherothrombosis Intervention in Metabolic Syndrome With Low HDL/High Triglycerides: Impact on Global Health Outcomes) Trial: To Believe or Not to Believe? J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 59: 2065-7.
41. Chapman MJ, Redfern JS, McGovern ME, Giral P. Niacin and fibrates in atherogenic dyslipidemia: pharmacotherapy to reduce cardiovascular risk. Pharmacol Ther 2010; 126: 314-45.
42. Brinton EA. Search and rescue for hypotheses surviving AIMHIGH, the niacin therapy earthquake: Still problematic after the primary publication. J Clin Lipidol 2012; 6: 312-7.
43. Banegas JR, López-García E, Dallongeville J, et al. Achievement of treatment goals for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in clinical practice across Europe: the EURIKA study. Eur Heart J 2011; 32: 2143-52.
44. Reiner Z. Combined therapy in the treatment of dyslipidemia. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2010; 24: 19-28.
45. Zhao XQ, Krasuski RA, Baer J, et al. Effects of combination lipid therapy on coronary stenosis progression and clinical cardiovascular events in coronary disease patients with metabolic syndrome: a combined analysis of the Familial Atherosclerosis treatment study (FATS), the HDL-Atherosclerosis treatment study (HATS) and the Armed Forces regression Study (AFREGS). Am J Cardiol 2009; 104: 1457-64.
46. Huijgen R, Abbink EJ, Bruckert E, et al.; Triple Study Group. Colesevelam added to combination therapy with a statin and ezetimibe in patients with familial hypercholesterolemia: a 12-week multicenter, randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Clin Ther 2010; 32: 615-25.
47. Ballantyne CM, Weiss R, Moccetti T, et al.; EXPLORER Study Investigators. Efficacy and safety of rosuvastatin 40 mg alone or in combination with ezetimibe in patients at high risk of cardiovascular disease (results from the EXPLORER study). Am J Cardiol 2007; 99: 673-80.
48. Toth PP, Ballantyne CM, Davidson MH, et al. Changes in prescription patterns before and after reporting of the Ezetimibe and Simvastatin in Hypercholesterolemia Enhances Atherosclerosis Regression trial (ENHANCE) results and expected effects on lowdensity lipoprotein-cholesterol reduction. J Clin Lipidol 2012; 6: 180-91.
49. Abumweis SS, Barake R, Jones PJ. Plant sterols/stanols as cholesterol lowering agents: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Food Nutr Res 2008; 52: doi: 10.3402/fnr.v52io.1811.
50. Cuchel M, Bloedon LT, Szapary PO, et al. Inhibition of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein in familial hypercholesterolemia. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 148-56.
51. Ladenson PW, Kristensen JD, Ridgway EC, et al. Use of the thyroid hormone analogue eprotirome in statin-treated dyslipidaemia. N Engl J Med 2010; 362: 906-16.
52. Raal FJ, Santos RD, Blom DJ, et al. Mipomersen, an apolipoprotein B synthesis inhibitor, for lowering of LDL cholesterol concentrations in patients with homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2010; 375: 998-1006.
53. Tibolla G, Norata GD, Artali R, Meneghetti F, Catapano AL. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9): from structurefunction relation to therapeutic inhibition. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2011; 21: 835-43
54. Stepien M, Rosniak-Bak K, Paradowski M, et al. Waist circumference, ghrelin and selected adipose tissue-derived adipokines as predictors of insulin resistance in obese patients: preliminary results. Med Sci Monit 2011; 17: PR13-18.
55. Cooney MT, Dudina A, De Bacquer D, et al. HDL cholesterol protects against cardiovascular disease in both genders, at all ages and at all levels of risk. Atherosclerosis 2009; 206: 611-16.
56. The European Atherosclerosis Society Consensus Panel. Triglyceride-rich lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in patients at high risk of cardiovascular disease: evidence and guidance for management. Eur Heart J 2011; 32: 1345-61.
57. Nicholls SJ, Tuzcu EM, Sipahi I, et al. Statins, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and regression of coronary atherosclerosis. JAMA 2007; 297: 499-508.
58. Poulter N. The impact of micronized fenofibrate on lipid subfractions and on reaching HDL-target levels in 7,098 patients with dyslipidaemia. Br J Cardiol 1999; 6: 682-5.
59. Otocka-Kmiecik A, Mikhailidis DP, Nicholls SJ, Davidson M, Rysz J, Banach M. Dysfunctional HDL: A novel important diagnostic and therapeutic target in cardiovascular disease? Prog Lipid Res 2012; 51:314-24.
60. Davidson MH, Stein EA, Bays HE, et al.; COMBination of prescription Omega-3 with Simvastatin (COMBOS) Investigators. Efficacy and tolerability of adding rescription omega-3 fatty acids 4 g/d to simvastatin 40 mg/d in hypertriglyceridemic patients: an 8-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Clin Ther 2007; 29: 1354-67.
61. Barter P, Gotto AM, LaRosa JC, et al.; Treating to New Targets Investigators. HDL cholesterol, very low levels of LDL cholesterol, and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 2007; 357: 1301-10.
62. Keech A, Simes RJ, Barter P, et al.; The FIELD Study Investigators. Effects of long-term fenofibrate therapy on cardiovascular events in 9795 people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (the FIELD study): randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005; 366: 1849-61.
63. The ACCORD Study Group. Effects of combination lipid therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 2010; 362: 1563-74.
64. Fruchart JC, Sacks F, Hermans MP, et al. The Residual Risk Reduction Initiative: a call to action to reduce residual vascular risk in patients with dyslipidemia. Am J Cardiol 2008; 102(10 Suppl): 1K-34K.
65. Barter PJ, Caulfield M, Eriksson M, et al.; ILLUMINATE Investigators. Effects of torcetrapib in patients at high risk for coronary events. N Engl J Med 2007; 357: 2109-22.
66. Schwartz GG, Olsson AG, Ballantyne CM et al; dal-OUTCOMES Committees and Investigators. Rationale and design of the dal-OUTCOMES trial: efficacy and safety of dalcetrapib in patients with recent acute coronary syndrome. Am Heart J 2009; 158(6): 896-901.
67. Barylski M, Małyszko J, Rysz J, Myśliwiec M, Banach M. Lipids, blood pressure, kidney-what was new in 2011? Arch Med Sci 2011; 7: 1055-66.
68. Kowalski J, Barylski M, Banach M, Grycewicz J, Irzmański R, Pawlicki L. Neutrophil superoxide anion generation during atorvastatin and fluvastatin therapy used in coronary heart disease primary prevention. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2006; 48: 143-7.
69. Florentin M, Liberopoulos EN, Wierzbicki AS, Mikhailidis DP. Multiple actions of high-density lipoprotein. Curr Opin Cardiol 2008; 23: 370-8.
70. Rizzo M, Berneis K. Low-density-lipoproteins size and cardiovascular risk assessment QJM-Int J Med 2006; 99: 1-14.
71. Austin MA, King MC, Vranizan KM, Krauss RM. Atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype. A proposed genetic marker for coronary heart disease risk. Circulation 1990; 82: 495-506. N
72. Gluba A, Mikhailidis DP, Lip GY, Hannam S, Rysz J, Banach M. Metabolic syndrome and renal disease. Int J Cardiol 2012; doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2012.01.013
73. Skóra B, Gluba A, Banach M, Rozentryt P, Poloński L, Rysz J. Acute Coronary Syndromes in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2012; (in press).
74. National Institutes of Health. Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults-the evidence report. Obesity Res 1998; 6(suppl 2): 51S-209S.
75. Carmena R. Type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, and vascular risk: rationale and evidence for correcting the lipid imbalance. Am Heart J 2005; 150: 859-70.
76. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Daniels SR, et al.; American Heart Association; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome: an American Heart Association/ National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Scientific Statement. Circulation 2005; 112: 2735-52.
77. Rizzo M, Berneis K. Small, dense low-density lipoproteins and the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes/Metab Res Rev 2007; 23: 14-20.
78. Sattar N, Petrie JR, Jaap AJ. The atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype and vascular endothelial dysfunction. Atherosclerosis 1998; 138: 229-35.
79. Superko HR. Beyond LDL cholesterol reduction. Circulation 1996; 94: 2351-4.
80. Packard CJ. Small dense low-density lipoprotein and its role as an independent predictor of cardiovascular disease. Curr Opin Lipidol 2006; 17: 412-7.
81. Gazi IF, Tsimihodimos V, Tselepis AD, Elisaf M, Mikhailidis DP. Clinical importance and therapeutic modulation of small dense low-density lipoprotein particles. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2007; 7: 53-72.
82. Ohara Y, Peterson TE, Harrison DG. Hypercholesterolemia increases endothelial superoxide anion production. J Clin Invest 1993; 91: 2546-51.
83. Rizzo M, Kotur-Stevuljevic J, Berneis K, et al. Atherogenic dyslipidemia and oxidative stress: a new look. Transl Res 2009; 153: 217-23.
84. Hansson GK. Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 1685-95.
85. Barylski M, Kowalczyk E, Banach M, Ciecwierz J, Pawlicki L, Kowalski J. Plasma total antioxidant activity in comparison with plasma NO and VEGF levels in patients with metabolic syndrome. Angiology 2009; 60: 87-92.
86. Athyros VG, Hatzitolios AI, Karagiannis A, et al. IMproving the imPlemEntation of cuRrent guidelines for the mAnagement of major coronary hearT disease rIsk factors by multifactorial interVEntion. The IMPERATIVE renal analysis. Arch Med Sci 2011; 7, 6: 984-92
87. Galeano NF, Al-Haideri M, Keyserman F, Rumsey SC, Deckelbaum RJ. Small dense low density lipoprotein has increased affinity for LDL receptor-independent cell surface binding sites: a potential mechanism for increased atherogenicity. J Lipid Res 1998; 39: 1263-73.
88. Tribble DL, Krauss RM, Lamberg MG, Thiel PM, van den Berg JM. Greater oxidative susceptibility of the surface monolayer in small dense LDL may contribute to differences in copper-induced oxidation among LDL density subfractions. J Lipid Res 1995; 36: 662-71.
89. Tribble DL, Rizzo M, Chait A, Lewis DM, Blanche PJ, Krauss RM. Enhanced oxidative susceptibility and reduced antioxidant content of metabolic precursors of small, dense low-density lipoproteins. Am J Med 2001; 110: 103-110.
90. Matsuura E, Hughes GR, Khamashta MA. Oxidation of LDL and its clinical implication. Autoimmun Rev 2008; 7: 558-66.
91. Vekic J, Kotur-Stevuljevic J, Jelic-Ivanovic Z, et al. Association of oxidative stress and PON1 with LDL and HDL particle size in middle-aged subjects. Eur J Clin Invest 2007; 37: 715-23.
92. Vekic J, Jelic-Ivanovic Z, Spasojevic-Kalimanovska V, et al. High serum uric acid and low-grade inflammation are associated with smaller LDL and HDL particles. Atherosclerosis 2009; 203: 236-42.
93. Austin MA. Triglyceride, small, dense low-density lipoprotein, and the atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2000; 2: 200-7.
94. St-Pierre AC, Cantin B, Dagenais GR, et al. Low-density lipoprotein subfractions and the long-term risk of ischemic heart disease in men: 13-year follow-up data from the Quebec Cardiovascular Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005; 25: 553-9.
95. Murdoch SJ, Breckenridge WC. Influence of lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase on the transformation of VLDL and HDL during lipolysis of VLDL. Atherosclerosis 1995; 118: 193-212.
96. Nicoll A, Lewis B. Evaluation of the roles of lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase in lipoprotein metabolism: in vivo and in vitro studies in man. Eur J Clin Invest 1980; 10: 487-95.
97. Campos H, Dreon DM, Krauss RM. Associations of hepatic and lipoprotein lipase activities with changes in dietary composition and low density lipoprotein subclasses. J Lipid Res 1995; 36: 462-72.
98. Rizzo M, Taylor JM, Barbagallo CM, Berneis K, Blanche PJ, Krauss RM. Effects on lipoprotein subclasses of combined expression of human hepatic lipase and human apoB in transgenic rabbits. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004; 24: 141-6.
99. Deckelbaum RJ, Granot E, Oschry Y, Rose L, Eisenberg S. Plasma triglyceride determines structure-composition in low and high density lipoproteins. Arteriosclerosis 1984; 4: 225-31.
100. Guerin M, Le Goff W, Lassel TS, Van Tol A, Steiner G, Chapman MJ. Atherogenic role of elevated CE transfer from HDL to VLDL(1) and dense LDL in type 2 diabetes: impact of the degree of triglyceridemia. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001; 21: 282-8.
101. Rizzo M, Rini GB, Spinas G, Berneis K. A practical method to determine the "atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype". Arch Med Sci 2008; 4: 215-8.
102. Berneis K, Rizzo M, Fruzzetti F, Lazzarini V, Carmina E. Atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype and low-density lipoproteins size and subclasses in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92: 186-9.
103. Rizzo M, Pernice V, Frasheri A, Berneis K. Atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype and LDL size and subclasses in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Atherosclerosis 2008; 197: 237-41.
104. Rizzo M, Berneis K. Altinova AE, et al. Atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype and LDL size and subclasses in women with gestational diabetes. Diabet Med 2008; 25: 1406-11.
105. Rizzo M, Pernice V, Frasheri A, et al. Small, dense low-density lipoproteins are predictors of cardio-and cerebro-vascular events in subjects with the metabolic syndrome. Clin Endocrinol 2009; 70: 870-5.
106. Rizzo M, Berneis K, Hersberger M, et al. Milder forms of atherogenic dyslipidemia in ovulatory vs. anovulatory polycystic ovary syndrome phenotype. Hum Reprod 2009; 24: 2286-92.
107. Rizzo M, Spinas GA, Cesur M, Ozbalkan Z, Rini GB, Berneis K. Atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype and LDL size and subclasses in drug-naïve patients with early rheumatoid arthritis. Atherosclerosis 2009; 207: 502-6.
108. Berneis K, Rizzo M, Spinas, GA, et al. The predictive role of atherogenic dyslipidemia in subjects with non-coronary atherosclerosis. Clin Chim Acta 2009; 406: 36-40.
109. Ballantyne CM, Olsson AG, Cook TJ, Mercuri MF, Pedersen TR, Kjekshus J. Influence of Low High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol and Elevated Triglyceride on Coronary Heart Disease Events and Response to Simvastatin Therapy in 4S. Circulation 2001; 104: 3046-51.
110. Gazi IF, Tsimihodimos V, Tselepis AD, Elisaf M, Mikhailidis DP. Clinical importance and therapeutic modulation of small dense low-density lipoprotein particles. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2007; 7: 53-72.
111. Haidara M, Mikhailidis DP, Yassin HZ, et al. Evaluation of the possible contribution of administration of antioxidants on metabolic syndrome. Curr Pharm Des 2011; 17: 3699-712.
112. Rizzo M, Mikhailidis DP. Lipoprotein alterations and reduced growth hormone secretion: relationships with obesity and cardiovascular risk. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2012; 76: 177-8.
113. Mikhailidis DP, Elisaf MS, Rizzo M, et al. "European Panel on Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Subclasses": A Statement on the Pathophysiology, Atherogenicity and Clinical Significance of LDL Subclasses. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2011; 9: 533-571.
114. Mikhailidis DP, Elisaf MS, Rizzo M, et al. "European Panel on Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Subclasses": A Statement on the Pathophysiology, Atherogenicity and Clinical Significance of LDL Subclasses: Executive Summary. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2011; 9: 531-2.
115. Krauss R, Burke D. Identification of multiple subclasses of plasma low density lipoproteins in normal humans. J Lipid Res 1982; 23: 97-104.
116. Rizzo M, Berneis K. Who needs to care about small, dense low density lipoproteins? Int J Clin Pract 2007; 61: 1949-56.
117. Pease RJ, Leiper JM. Regulation of hepatic apolipoprotein-B containing lipoprotein secretion. Curr Opin Lipidol 1996; 7: 132-8.
118. Bjornheden T, Babyi A, Bondjers G, Wiklund O. Accumulation of lipoprotein fractions and subfractions in the arterial wall, determined in an in vitro perfusion system. Atherosclerosis 1996; 123: 43-56.
119. Camejo G, Lopez A, Lopez F, Quinones J. Interaction of low density lipoproteins with arterial proteoglycans. The role of charge and sialic acid content. Atherosclerosis 1985; 55: 93-105.
120. Stein EA. Management of dyslipidemia in the high-risk patient. Am Heart J 2002; 144: S43-50.
121. Fruchart JC, Sacks F, Hermans MP, et al. The Residual Risk Reduction Initiative: a call to action to reduce residual vascular risk in patients with dyslipidemia. Am J Cardiol 2008; 102 (10 Suppl): 1K-34K.
122. Graham I, Atar D, Borch-Johnsen K, et al. European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: executive summary. Atherosclerosis 2007; 194: 1-45.
123. Graham I, Atar D, Borch-Johnsen K, et al. European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: full text. Fourth Joint Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and other societies on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice (constituted by representatives of nine societies and by invited experts). Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2007; 14 Suppl 2: S1-113.
124. British Cardiac Society, British Hypertension Society, Diabetes UK, HEART UK, Primary Care Cardiovascular Society, The Stroke Association. JBS 2: the Joint British Societies' guidelines for prevention of cardiovascular disease in clinical practice. Heart 2005; 91(suppl V): v1-v52.
125. Sarwar N, Danesh J, Eiriksdottir G, et al. Triglycerides and the risk of coronary heart disease: 10,158 incident cases among 262,525 participants in 29 Western prospective studies. Circulation 2007; 115: 450-8.
126. Wierzbicki AS, Mikhailidis DP, Wray R, et al. Statin-fibrate combination therapy for hyperlipidaemia: A review. Curr Med Res Opin 2003; 19: 155-68.
127. Wierzbicki AS. Fibrates: no ACCORD on their use in the treatment of dyslipidaemia. Curr Opin Lipidol 2010; 21: 352-8.
128. Rizzo M, Berneis K. The clinical significance of the size of lowdensity-lipoproteins and the modulation of subclasses by fibrates. Curr Med Res Opin 2007; 23: 1103-11.
129. Rizzo M, Berneis K. The clinical relevance of low-density lipoproteins size modulation by statins. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 2006; 20: 205-17.
130. Rizzo M, Berneis K, Spinas GA, Rini GB, Kapur NK. Quantitative and qualitative effects of rosuvastatin on LDL-cholesterol: what is the clinical significance? Int J Clin Pract 2009; 63: 478-85.
131. Mikhailidis DP, Wierzbicki AS, Daskalopoulou SS, et al. The use of ezetimibe in achieving low density lipoprotein lowering goals in clinical practice: Position statement of a United Kingdom consensus panel. Curr Med Res Opin 2005; 21: 959-69.
132. Rizzo M, Rini GB, Spinas GA, Berneis K. The effects of ezetimibe on LDL-cholesterol: quantitative or qualitative changes? Atherosclerosis 2009; 204: 330-3.
133. Berneis K, Rizzo M, Berthold HK, Spinas GA, Krone W, Gouni-Berthold I. Ezetimibe alone or in combination with simvastatin increases small, dense low-density lipoproteins in healthy men: a randomized trial. Eur Heart J 2010; 31: 1633-9.
134. Florentin M, Liberopoulos EN, Moutzouri E, Rizos CV, Tselepis AD, Elisaf MS. The effect of simvastatin alone versus simvastatin plus ezetimibe on the concentration of small dense low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in subjects with primary hypercholesterolemia. Curr Med Res Opin 2011; 27: 685-92.
135. Katsiki N, Athyros VG, Karagiannis A, Mikhailidis DP. Ezetimibe and low density lipoprotein subfractions: an ongoing debate. Curr Med Res Opin 2011; 27: 693-5.
136. Wierzbicki AS, Hardman TC, Viljoen A. New lipid-lowering drugs: an update. Int J Clin Pract 2012; 66: 270-80
137. Rizzo M, Wierzbicki AS. New lipid modulating drugs: the role of microsomal transport protein inhibitors. Curr Pharm Des 2011; 17: 943-9.
138. Rader DJ, Brewer HB. Abetalipoproteinemia. New insights into lipoprotein assembly and vitamin E metabolism from a rare genetic disease. JAMA 1993; 270: 865-9.
139. Rizzo M. Lomitapide, a microsomal triglyceride transfer protein inhibitor for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia. IDrugs 2010; 13: 103-11.
140. Wierzbicki AS, Hardman TC, Viljoen A. Inhibition of pre-protein convertase serine kexin-9 (PCSK-9) as a treatment for hyperlipidaemia. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2012; 21: 667-76.
141. Stein, EA, Mellis S, Yancopoulos GD, et al. Effect of a monoclonal antibody to PCSK9 on LDL cholesterol. N Engl J Med 2012; 366(12): p. 1108-18.
142. McKenney, JM, Koren MJ, Kereiakes DJ, Hanotin C, Ferrand AC, Stein EA. Safety and Efficacy of a Monoclonal Antibody to Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin/Kexin Type 9 Serine Protease, SAR236553/REGN727, in Patients With Primary Hypercholesterolemia Receiving Ongoing Stable Atorvastatin Therapy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 59(25): 2344-53.
143. Stein EA, Gipe D, Bergeron J, et al. Effect of a monoclonal antibody to PCSK9, REGN727/SAR236553, to reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia on stable statin dose with or without ezetimibe therapy: a phase 2 randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2012; doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60771-5.
144. Nakou ES, Filippatos TD, Kiortsis DN, et al. The effects of ezetimibe and orlistat, alone or in combination, on high-density lipoprotein (HDL) subclasses and HDL-associated enzyme activities in overweight and obese patients with hyperlipidaemia. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2008; 9: 3151-8.
145. Filippatos TD, Tsimihodimos V, Kostapanos M, et al. Analysis of 6-month effect of orlistat administration, alone or in combination with fenofibrate, on triglyceride-rich lipoprotein metabolism in overweight and obese patients with metabolic syndrome. J Clin Lipidol 2008; 2: 279-84.
146. Filippatos TD, Elisaf MS. Combination drug treatment in obese diabetic patients. World J Diabetes 2010; 1: 8-11.
147. Genest J, McPherson R, Frohlich J, et al. 2009 Canadian Cardiovascular Society/Canadian guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of dyslipidemia and prevention of cardiovascular disease in the adult-2009 recommendations. Can J Cardiol 2009; 25: 567-79.
148. ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: the Task Force for the management of dyslipidaemias of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS). Eur Heart J 2011; 32: 1769-818.
149. Argo CK, Caldwell SH. Epidemiology and natural history of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Clin Liver Dis 2009; 13: 511-31.
150. Szczepaniak LS, Nurenberg P, Leonard D, et al. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy to measure hepatic triglyceride content: prevalence of hepatic steatosis in the general population. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2005; 288: E462-8.
151. Cohen JC, Horton JD, Hobbs HH. Human fatty liver disease: old questions and new insights. Science 2011; 332: 1519-23.
152. Alkhouri N, Carter-Kent C, Elias M, Feldstein AE. Atherogenic dyslipidemia and cardiovascular risk in children with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Clin Lipidol 2011; 6: 305-314.
153. Athyros VG, Tziomalos K, Gossios TD, et al; GREACE Study Collaborative Group. Safety and efficacy of long-term statin treatment for cardiovascular events in patients with coronary heart disease and abnormal liver tests in the Greek Atorvastatin and Coronary Heart Disease Evaluation (GREACE) Study: a post-hoc analysis. Lancet 2010; 376: 1916-22.
154. Kolovou GD, Mikhailidis DP, Kovar J, et al. Assessment and clinical relevance of non-fasting and postprandial triglycerides: an expert panel statement. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2011; 9: 258-70.