Cognitive impairment after critical illness: Etiologies, risk factors, and future directions

Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 34, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 216-222

  Jackson, Jamesc ^a   Ely, E Wesley ^a  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

brain injury; cognitive impairment; critical illness; dementia; executive dysfunction; memory

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCHOLINE; APOLIPOPROTEIN E; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; DOPAMINE; FUROSEMIDE; GLUCOSE; HISTAMINE H2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; NARCOTIC AGENT; OPIATE; SEDATIVE AGENT; SEROTONIN; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT;

ANTICHOLINERGIC EFFECT; ARTICLE; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; ATTENTION; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COGNITIVE REHABILITATION; CONVALESCENCE; CRITICAL ILLNESS; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; DELIRIUM; DEPTH PERCEPTION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPOGLYCEMIA; HYPOTENSION; HYPOXEMIA; IMMUNE DYSREGULATION; INFORMATION PROCESSING; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; LONG TERM CARE; MEMORY; NEUROPSYCHOLOGY; NEUROTOXICITY; NEUROTRANSMISSION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RISK FACTOR; SEPSIS; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY;

COGNITION DISORDERS; CRITICAL ILLNESS; HUMANS; INTENSIVE CARE UNITS; RISK FACTORS; SURVIVORS;

EID: 84878390273     PISSN: 10693424     EISSN: 10989048     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-0033-1342984     Document Type: Article

References (69)

1. Adhikari N. K., Fowler R. A., Bhagwanjee S., Rubenfeld G. D. Critical care and the global burden of critical illness in adults. Lancet: 2010; 376 9749 1339 1346. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60446-1
2. Iwashyna T. J. Survivorship will be the defining challenge of critical care in the 21st century. Ann Intern Med: 2010; 153 3 204 205. doi: 10.1059/0003-4819-153-3-201008030-00013
3. Needham D. M., Davidson J., Cohen H., et al. Improving long-term outcomes after discharge from intensive care unit: report from a stakeholders' conference. Crit Care Med: 2012; 40 2 502 509
4. Hopkins R. O., Jackson J. C. Long-term neurocognitive function after critical illness. Chest: 2006; 130 3 869 878 (Pubitemid 44423622)
5. Kapfhammer H. P., Rothenhäusler H. B., Krauseneck T., Stoll C., Schelling G. Posttraumatic stress disorder and health-related quality of life in long-term survivors of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Psychiatry: 2004; 161 1 45 52 (Pubitemid 38419306)
6. Girard T. D., Jackson J. C., Pandharipande P. P., et al. Delirium as a predictor of long-term cognitive impairment in survivors of critical illness. Crit Care Med: 2010; 38 7 1513 1520. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181e47be1
7. Hopkins R. O., Weaver L. K., Collingridge D., Parkinson R. B., Chan K. J., Orme J. F. Jr. Two-year cognitive, emotional, and quality-of-life outcomes in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2005; 171 4 340 347 (Pubitemid 40223401)
8. Jones C., Griffiths R. D., Slater T., Benjamin K. S., Wilson S. Significant cognitive dysfunction in non-delirious patients identified during and persisting following critical illness. Intensive Care Med: 2006; 32 6 923 926 (Pubitemid 43781378)
9. Unroe M., Kahn J. M., Carson S. S., et al. One-year trajectories of care and resource utilization for recipients of prolonged mechanical ventilation: a cohort study. Ann Intern Med: 2010; 153 3 167 175. doi: 10.1059/0003-4819-153-3- 201008030-00007
10. Hopkins R. O., Gale S. D., Weaver L. K. Brain atrophy and cognitive impairment in survivors of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. Brain Inj: 2006; 20 3 263 271
11. Suchyta M. R., Jephson A., Hopkins R. O. Neurologic changes during critical illness: brain imaging findings and neurobehavioral outcomes. Brain Imaging Behav: 2010; 4 1 22 34. doi: 10.1007/s11682-009-9082-3
12. Ehlenbach W. J., Hough C. L., Crane P. K., et al. Association between acute care and critical illness hospitalization and cognitive function in older adults. JAMA: 2010; 303 8 763 770. doi: 10.1001/jama.2010.167
13. Wilson R. S., Hebert L. E., Scherr P. A., Dong X., Leurgens S. E., Evans D. A. Cognitive decline after hospitalization in a community population of older persons. Neurology: 2012; 78 13 950 956. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e31824d5894
14. Iwashyna T. J., Ely E. W., Smith D. M., Langa K. M. Long-term cognitive impairment and functional disability among survivors of severe sepsis. JAMA: 2010; 304 16 1787 1794. doi: 10.1001/jama.2010.1553
15. Hopkins R. O., Jackson J. C. Short- and long-term cognitive outcomes in intensive care unit survivors. Clin Chest Med: 2009; 30 1 143 153, ix. doi: 10.1016/j.ccm.2008.11.001
16. Sukantarat K. T., Burgess P. W., Williamson R. C., Brett S. J. Prolonged cognitive dysfunction in survivors of critical illness. Anaesthesia: 2005; 60 9 847 853 (Pubitemid 41200655)
17. Duning T., van den Heuvel I., Dickmann A., et al. Hypoglycemia aggravates critical illness-induced neurocognitive dysfunction. Diabetes Care: 2010; 33 3 639 644. doi: 10.2337/dc09-1740
18. Jackson J. C., Hart R. P., Gordon S. M., et al. Six-month neuropsychological outcome of medical intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med: 2003; 31 4 1226 1234 (Pubitemid 36444437)
19. Mikkelsen M. E., Christie J. D., Lanken P. N., et al. The adult respiratory distress syndrome cognitive outcomes study: long-term neuropsychological function in survivors of acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2012; 185 12 1307 1315. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201111-2025OC
20. Jackson J. C., Obremskey W., Bauer R., et al. Long-term cognitive, emotional, and functional outcomes in trauma intensive care unit survivors without intracranial hemorrhage. J Trauma: 2007; 62 1 80 88. doi: 10.1097/TA.0b013e31802ce9bd (Pubitemid 46102836)
21. Pelati O., Castiglioni S., Isella V., et al. When Rey-Osterrieth's complex figure becomes a church: prevalence and correlates of graphic confabulations in dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Dis Extra: 2011; 1 1 372 380
22. Hopkins R. O., Weaver L. K., Chan K. J., Orme J. F. Jr. Quality of life, emotional, and cognitive function following acute respiratory distress syndrome. J Int Neuropsychol Soc: 2004; 10 7 1005 1017
23. Hopkins R. O., Suchyta M. R., Snow G. L., Jephson A., Weaver L. K., Orme J. F. Blood glucose dysregulation and cognitive outcome in ARDS survivors. Brain Inj: 2010; 24 12 1478 1484. doi: 10.3109/02699052.2010.506861
24. Elenkov I. J., Iezzoni D. G., Daly A., Harris A. G., Chrousos G. P. Cytokine dysregulation, inflammation and well-being. Neuroimmunomodulation: 2005; 12 5 255 269 (Pubitemid 41318209)
25. Lutz P. L., Nilsson G. E. The Brain without oxygen. Austin, TX Chapman and Hall: 1997
26. Michenfelder J. D., Sundt T. M. Jr. Cerebral ATP and lactate levels in the squirrel monkey following occlusion of the middle cerebral artery. Stroke: 1971; 2 4 319 326
27. Siesjö B. K., Bengtsson F., Grampp W., Theander S. Calcium, excitotoxins, and neuronal death in the brain. Ann N Y Acad Sci: 1989; 568 234 251 (Pubitemid 20166541)
28. Schurr A., Lipton P., West C. A., Rigor B. M. The role of energy in metabolism and divalent cations in the neurotoxicity of excitatory amino acids in vitro. In: Krieglstein J., ed. Pharmacology of Cerebral Ischemia. Boca Raton, FL CRC Press: 1990; 217 226
29. Biagas K. Hypoxic-ischemic brain injury: advancements in the understanding of mechanisms and potential avenues for therapy. Curr Opin Pediatr: 1999; 11 3 223 228 (Pubitemid 29253512)
30. Floyd R. A. Role of oxygen free radicals in carcinogenesis and brain ischemia. FASEB J: 1990; 4 9 2587 2597
31. Johnston M. V., Nakajima W., Hagberg H. Mechanisms of hypoxic neurodegeneration in the developing brain. Neuroscientist: 2002; 8 3 212 220 (Pubitemid 34538789)
32. Sonneville R., den Hertog H. M., Güiza F., et al. Impact of hyperglycemia on neuropathological alterations during critical illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab: 2012; 97 6 2113 2123. doi: 10.1210/jc.2011-2971
33. Katsura K., Kristián T., Smith M. L., Siesjö B. K. Acidosis induced by hypercapnia exaggerates ischemic brain damage. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab: 1994; 14 2 243 250 (Pubitemid 24064437)
34. Nabeshima T., Katoh A., Ishimaru H., et al. Carbon monoxide-induced delayed amnesia, delayed neuronal death and change in acetylcholine concentration in mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther: 1991; 256 1 378 384
35. Dietrich W. D., Alonso O., Busto R. Moderate hyperglycemia worsens acute blood-brain barrier injury after forebrain ischemia in rats. Stroke: 1993; 24 1 111 116 (Pubitemid 23014392)
36. McCall A. L. The impact of diabetes on the CNS. Diabetes: 1992; 41 5 557 570
37. Levine S. R., Welch K. M., Helpern J. A., et al. Prolonged deterioration of ischemic brain energy metabolism and acidosis associated with hyperglycemia: human cerebral infarction studied by serial 31P NMR spectroscopy. Ann Neurol: 1988; 23 4 416 418 (Pubitemid 18098257)
38. Rosner M. J., Newsome H. H., Becker D. P. Mechanical brain injury: the sympathoadrenal response. J Neurosurg: 1984; 61 1 76 86 (Pubitemid 14081296)
39. Siesjö B. K., Siesjö P. Mechanisms of secondary brain injury. Eur J Anaesthesiol: 1996; 13 3 247 268 (Pubitemid 26158485)
40. Feuerstein G. Z., Liu T., Barone F. C. Cytokines, inflammation, and brain injury: role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Cerebrovasc Brain Metab Rev: 1994; 6 4 341 360
41. Ely E. W., Shintani A., Truman B., et al. Delirium as a predictor of mortality in mechanically ventilated patients in the intensive care unit. JAMA: 2004; 291 14 1753 1762 (Pubitemid 38489897)
42. Jackson J. C., Gordon S. M., Hart R. P., Hopkins R. O., Ely E. W. The association between delirium and cognitive decline: a review of the empirical literature. Neuropsychol Rev: 2004; 14 2 87 98 (Pubitemid 39012554)
43. Morandi A., Rogers B. P., Gunther M. L., et al. VISIONS Investigation, VISualizing Icu SurvivOrs Neuroradiological Sequelae The relationship between delirium duration, white matter integrity, and cognitive impairment in intensive care unit survivors as determined by diffusion tensor imaging: the VISIONS prospective cohort magnetic resonance imaging study. Crit Care Med: 2012; 40 7 2182 2189. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e318250acdc
44. Sharshar T., Carlier R., Bernard F., et al. Brain lesions in septic shock: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Intensive Care Med: 2007; 33 5 798 806. doi: 10.1007/s00134-007-0598-y (Pubitemid 46675332)
45. van der Mast R. C. Pathophysiology of delirium. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol: 1998; 11 3 138 145, discussion 157-158 (Pubitemid 29017585)
46. Flacker J. M., Cummings V., Mach J. R. Jr, Bettin K., Kiely D. K., Wei J. The association of serum anticholinergic activity with delirium in elderly medical patients. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry: 1998; 6 1 31 41 (Pubitemid 28051719)
47. Inouye S. K., Charpentier P. A. Precipitating factors for delirium in hospitalized elderly persons. Predictive model and interrelationship with baseline vulnerability. JAMA: 1996; 275 11 852 857 (Pubitemid 26087222)
48. Trzepacz P. T. Delirium. Advances in diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment. Psychiatr Clin North Am: 1996; 19 3 429 448 (Pubitemid 26277185)
49. Trzepacz P. T. Is there a final common neural pathway in delirium? Focus on acetylcholine and dopamine. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry: 2000; 5 2 132 148
50. Meagher D. J., Trzepacz P. T. Motoric subtypes of delirium. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry: 2000; 5 2 75 85
51. Arvin B., Neville L. F., Barone F. C., Feuerstein G. Z. Brain injury and inflammation. A putative role of TNF alpha. Ann N Y Acad Sci: 1995; 765 62 71, discussion 98-99 (Pubitemid 26136229)
52. Bellingan G. J. The pulmonary physician in critical care * 6: The pathogenesis of ALI/ARDS. Thorax: 2002; 57 6 540 546 (Pubitemid 34627988)
53. Francis J., Martin D., Kapoor W. N. A prospective study of delirium in hospitalized elderly. JAMA: 1990; 263 8 1097 1101 (Pubitemid 20047442)
54. De Kloet E. R., Vreugdenhil E., Oitzl M. S., Joëls M. Brain corticosteroid receptor balance in health and disease. Endocr Rev: 1998; 19 3 269 301 (Pubitemid 29117816)
55. Corder E. H., Saunders A. M., Strittmatter W. J., et al. Gene dose of apolipoprotein E type 4 allele and the risk of Alzheimer's disease in late onset families. Science: 1993; 261 5123 921 923 (Pubitemid 23275809)
56. Ely E. W., Girard T. D., Shintani A. K., et al. Apolipoprotein E4 polymorphism as a genetic predisposition to delirium in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med: 2007; 35 1 112 117 (Pubitemid 46035685)
57. Milbrandt E. B., Angus D. C. Potential mechanisms and markers of critical illness-associated cognitive dysfunction. Curr Opin Crit Care: 2005; 11 4 355 359 (Pubitemid 41248310)
58. Sommer B. R., Wise L. C., Kraemer H. C. Is dopamine administration possibly a risk factor for delirium? Crit Care Med: 2002; 30 7 1508 1511 (Pubitemid 34756233)
59. Fischer J. E., Rosen H. M., Ebeid A. M., James J. H., Keane J. M., Soeters P. B. The effect of normalization of plasma amino acids on hepatic encephalopathy in man. Surgery: 1976; 80 1 77 91
60. Morrison R. S., Magaziner J., Gilbert M., et al. Relationship between pain and opioid analgesics on the development of delirium following hip fracture. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci: 2003; 58 1 76 81 (Pubitemid 36110059)
61. Jackson J. C., Girard T. D., Gordon S. M., et al. Long-term cognitive and psychological outcomes in the awakening and breathing controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2010; 182 2 183 191. doi: 10.1164/rccm.200903-0442OC
62. Stuss D. T., Winocur G., Robertson I. H., eds. Cognitive Neurorehabilitation: Evidence and Application. 2nd ed. Cambridge Cambridge University Press: 2010
63. Jackson J. C., Ely E. W., Morey M. C., et al. Cognitive and physical rehabilitation of intensive care unit survivors: results of the RETURN randomized controlled pilot investigation. Crit Care Med: 2012; 40 4 1088 1097. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182373115
64. Cicerone K. D., Dahlberg C., Kalmar K., et al. Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: recommendations for clinical practice. Arch Phys Med Rehabil: 2000; 81 12 1596 1615. doi: 10.1053/apmr.2000.19240
65. Winocur G. Introduction to principles of cognitive rehabilitation. In: Stuss D. T., Winocur G., Robertson I. H., eds. Cognitive Neurorehabilitation: Evidence and Application. 2nd ed. Cambridge Cambridge University Press: 2010; 3 5
66. Kleim J. A., Jones T. A. Principles of experience-dependent neural plasticity: implications for rehabilitation after brain damage. J Speech Lang Hear Res: 2008; 51 1 S225 S239. doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2008/018) (Pubitemid 351206588)
67. Bloss E. B., Janssen W. G., Ohm D. T., et al. Evidence for reduced experience-dependent dendritic spine plasticity in the aging prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci: 2011; 31 21 7831 7839. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0839-11.2011
68. Dixon R. A., Garrett D., Blackman L. Principles of compensation in cognitive neuroscience and neurorehabilitation. In: Stuss D. T., Winocur G., Robertson I. H., eds. Cognitive Neurorehabilitation: Evidence and Application. 2nd ed. Cambridge Cambridge University Press: 2010; 22 38
69. Bäckman L., Dixon R. A. Psychological compensation: a theoretical framework. Psychol Bull: 1992; 112 2 259 283