Delirium: Advances in diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment

Psychiatric Clinics of North America

Volumn 19, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 429-448

  Trzepacz, P T ^a  

^a WPIC   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BUSPIRONE; CARBAMAZEPINE; DROPERIDOL; HALOPERIDOL; LORAZEPAM; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT;

ADULT; AGITATION; CHILD; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DELIRIUM; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYMPTOM; HUMAN; INTRAMUSCULAR DRUG ADMINISTRATION; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; MOOD; NEUROTRANSMISSION; ORAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERCEPTION DISORDER; PHENOMENOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHIATRIC DIAGNOSIS; RATING SCALE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SLEEP DISORDER; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; THOUGHT DISORDER; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 0029795022     PISSN: 0193953X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0193-953X(05)70299-9     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. F. Adams Emergency intravenous sedation of the delirious medically ill patient J Clin Psychiatry 49 1988 22 26
2. F. Adams Neuropsychiatric evaluation and treatment of delirium in the critically ill cancer patient The Cancer Bulletin 36 1984 156 160
3. N. Akaike T. Shirasaki T. Yakushiji Quinolone and fenbufen interact with GABA-A receptors in dissociated hippocampal cells of rats J Neurophysiol 66 1991 497 504
4. M.S. Albert S.E. Levkoff C. Reilly The Delirium Symptom Interview: An interview for the detection of delirium symptoms in hospitalized patients J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 5 1992 14 21
5. D. Ames W.C. Wirshing M.P. Szuba Organic mental disorders associated with buproprion in three patients J Clin Psychiatry 53 1992 53 55
6. B. Anderson A proposed theory for the encephalopathies of Reye's syndrome and hepatic encephalopathy Med Hypotheses 15 1984 415 420
7. D.H. Armstrong J.F. Dasts T.E. Reilly R.D. Tallman Effect of haloperidol on dopamine-induced increase in renal blood flow Drug Intell Clin Pharm 20 1986 543 546
8. E.J. Bartlett J.D. Brodie P. Simkowitz Effects of haloperidol challenge on regional cerebral glucose utilization in normal human subjects Am J Psychiatry 151 1994 681 686
9. D. Berggren Y. Gustafson B. Eriksson Postoperative confusion following anesthesia in elderly patients treated for femoral neck fractures Anesth Analg 1394 1987 497 504
10. J. Bogousslavsky M. Ferranzzini F. Regli Manic delirium and frontal-like syndrome with paramedian infarction of the right thalamus J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 51 1988 116 119
11. J. Boiten J. Lodder An unusual sequela of a frequently occurring neurologic disorder: Delirium caused by brain infarct Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 133 1989 617 620
12. Breitbart W, Marotta R, Platt M, et al: A randomized double-blind trial of haloperidol, chlorpromazine, and lorazepam in the treatment of delirium in hospitalized AIDS patients. Presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Psychosomatic Medicine, Phoenix, Arizona, November, 1994
13. P.A. Broderick G.E. Gibson Dopamine and serotonin in rat striatum during in vivo hypoxic-hypoxia Metab Brain Dis 4 1989 143 153
14. M.T. Champagne V.J. Neelon E.S. McConnell The NEECHAM Confusion Scale: Assessing confusion in the hospitalized and nursing home elderly Gerontologist 27 1987 4A
15. J.A. Coffman S.C. Dilsaver Cholinergic mechanisms in delirium Am J Psychiatry 145 1988 382 383
16. J. Cutting The phenomenology of acute organic psychosis: Comparison with acute schizophrenia Br J Psychiatry 151 1987 324 332
17. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Mental Disorders 1952 American Psychiatric Association Washington, DC
18. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-II ed 2 1968 American Psychiatric Association Washington, DC
19. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-III ed 3 1980 American Psychiatric Association Washington, DC
20. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-III-R, revised ed 3 1987 American Psychiatric Association Washington, DC
21. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-IV ed 4 1994 American Psychiatric Association Washington, DC
22. D.L. Dudley D.B. Rowlett P.J. Loebel Emergency use of intravenous haloperidol Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1 1979 240 246
23. D.M. Feeney A. Gonzalez W.A. Law Amphetamine, haloperidol, and experience interact to affect rate of recovery after motor cortex injury Science 217 1982 855 857
24. F. Fernandez V.F. Holmes F. Adams Treatment of severe, refractory agitation with a haloperidol drip J Clin Psychiatry 49 1988 239 241
25. F. Fernandez J.K. Levy P.W.A. Mansell Management of delirium in terminally ill AIDS patients Int J Psychiatry Med 19 1989 165 172
26. G.S. Figiel M.A. Hassen C. Zorumski ECT-induced delirium in depressed patients with Parkinson's disease J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 3 1991 405 411
27. G.S. Figiel K.R. Krishman J.C. Breitner Radiologic correlates of antidepressant-induced delirium: The possible significance of basal ganglia lesions J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1 1989 188 190
28. M.D. Foreman Confusion in the hospitalized elderly: Incidence, onset, and associated features Res Nurs Health 12 1989 21 29
29. J. Francis W.N. Kapoor Prognosis after hospital discharge of older medical patients with delirium J Am Geriatr Soc 40 1992 601 606
30. J. Francis D. Martin W.N. Kapoor A prospective study of delirium in hospitalized elderly JAMA 263 1990 1097 1101
31. J.H. Friedman Syndrome of diffuse encephalopathy due to nondominant thalamic infarction Neurology 35 1985 1524 1526
32. M.A. Frye M.F. Coudreaut S.M. Hakeman Continuous droperidol infusion for management of agitated delirium in an ICU Psychosomatics 36 1995 301 305
33. S.B. Gelfand J. Indelicato J. Benjamin Using intravenous haloperidol to control delirium Hosp Comm Psychiatry 43 1992 215
34. G.E. Gibson R. Jope J.P. Blass Decreased synthesis of acetylcholine accompanying impaired oxidation of pyruvate in rat brain slices Biochem J 26 1975 17 23
35. R.J. Goldberg M. Huk Serotonergic syndrome from trazodone and buspirone [letter] Psychosomatics 33 1992 235 236
36. Y. Gustafson D. Berggren B. Brahnstrom Acute confusional states in elderly patients treated for femoral neck fracture J Am Geriatr Soc 36 1988 525 530
37. R.E. Hales S. Polly D. Orman An evaluation of patients who received an organic mental disorder diagnosis on a psychiatric consultation-liaison service Gen Hosp Psychiatry 11 1988 88 94
38. J.F. Hooper G. Minter Droperidol in the management of psychiatric emergencies J Clin Psychopharmacol 3 1983 262 263
39. S.J. Hopkins N.J. Rothwell Cytokines and the nervous system: I. Expression and recognition Trends Neurosci 18 1995 83 88
40. S. Horenstein W. Chamberlin J. Conomy Infarction of the fusiform and calcarine regions: agitated delirium and hemianopia Yahr M. Translations of the American Neurological Association 1967 vol 92 1967 Springer New York 85 89
41. F. Huyse Haloperidol and cardiac arrest Lancet 2 1988 568 569
42. S.K. Inouye C.H. van Dyke C.A. Alessi Clarifying confusion: The confusion assessment method Ann Intern Med 113 1990 941 948
43. S.K. Inouye C.M. Viscoli R.I. Horwitz A predictive model for delirium in hospitalized elderly medical patients based on admission characteristics Arch Intern Med 119 1993 474 481
44. M. Irwin Fuentenebrof S.R. Marder L-5-hydroxytryptophan-induced delirium Biol Psychiatry 21 1986 673 676
45. T. Itil M. Fink Anticholinergic drug-induced delirium: Experimental modification, quantitative EEG, and behavioral correlations J Nerv Ment Dis 143 1966 492 507
46. J. Jones J. Dougherty L. Cannon Diphenhydramine-induced toxic psychosis Am J Emerg Med 4 1986 369 371
47. A.J. Knell A.R. Davidson R. Williams Dopamine and serotonin metabolism in hepatic encephalopathy BMJ 1 1974 549 551
48. K. Kobayashi O. Takeuchi M. Suzuki A retrospective study on delirium type Jpn J Psychiatry Neurol 46 1992 911 917
49. S.R. Kopf C.M. Baratti Memory-improving actions of glucose: Involvement of a central cholinergic muscarinic mechanism Behav Neural Biol 62 1994 237 243
50. H. Koponen L. Hurri U. Stenback Computed tomography findings in delirium J Nerv Ment Dis 177 1989 226 231
51. H. Koponen J. Sirvio U. Lepola A long-term follow-up study of cerebrospinal fluid acetylcholinesterase in delirium Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 243 1994 347 351
52. H. Koponen U. Stenbach E. Mattila Delirium among elderly persons admitted to a psychiatric hospital: Clinical course during the acute stage and one year follow-up Acta Psychiatr Scand 79 1989 579 585
53. 1H NMR spectroscopy in patients with chronic hepatic encephalopathy. Analysis of changes in cerebral glutamine, choline, and inositols NMR in Biomedicine 4 1991 109 116
54. M. Kriwisky G.Y. Perry Tarchitsky Haloperidol-induced torsades de pointes Chest 98 1990 482 484
55. J.L. Levenson High-dose intravenous haloperidol for agitated delirium following lung transplantation Psychosomatics 36 1995 66 68
56. S.E. Levkoff D.A. Evans B. Liptzin Delirium: The occurrence and persistence of symptoms among elderly hospitalized patients Arch Intern Med 152 1992 334 340
57. S.E. Levkoff C. Safran P.D. Cleary Identification of factors associated with the diagnosis of delirium in elderly hospitalized patients J Am Geriatr Soc 36 1988 1099 1104
58. Z.J. Lipowski Delirium, clouding of consciousness and confusion J Nerv Ment Dis 145 1967 227 255
59. S.A. Lipton H.E. Gendelman Dementia associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome N Engl J Med 332 1995 934 940
60. B. Liptzin S.E. Levkoff G.L. Gottlieb J.C. Johnson Delirium: Background paper for DSM-IV J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 5 1993 154 160
61. J.J. Locasio R.P. Malone A.M. Small Factors related to haloperidol response and dyskinesias in autistic children Psychopharmacol Bull 27 1991 119 125
62. J. Mach M. Dysken H. Richards Serum anticholinergic activity in hospitalized elderly with delirium J Am Geriatr Soc 38 1990 A5
63. J. Magaziner E.M. Simonsick T.M. Kashner Predictors of functional recovery one year following hospital discharge for hip fracture: A prospective study J Gerontol 45 1990 M101 M107
64. R.P. Malone M. Ernst K.A. Godfrey Repeated episodes of neuroleptic-related dyskinesias in autistic children Psychopharmacol Bull 27 1991 113 117
65. P.J. Manos Letter to Editor Psychosomatics 36 1995 156 157
66. M. Martin G. Figiel G. Mattingly ECT-induced interictal delirium in patients with a history of a CVA J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 5 1992 149 155
67. M. Marzanatti A. Monopoli M. Trampus Effects of nonsedating histamine H-1 antagonists on EEG activity and behavior in the cat Pharmacol Biochem Behav 32 1989 861 866
68. D.A. Mathers The GABA-A receptor: New insights from single channel recording Synapse 1 1987 96 101
69. I. McKeith A. Fairbairn R. Perry Neuroleptic sensitivity in patients with senile dementia of Lewy body type BMJ 305 1992 673 678
70. J.L. Medina F.A. Rubino E. Ross Agitated delirium caused by infarctions of the hippocampal formation and fusiform and lingual gyri Neurology 24 1974 1181 1183
71. J.L. Medina C. Sudhansu F.A. Rubino Syndrome of agitated delirium and visual impairment: A manifestation of medial temporo-occipital infarction J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 40 1977 861 864
72. H.Y. Meltzer Serotonin-dopamine interactions and atypical antipsychotic drugs Psychiatric Annals 23 1993 193 200
73. M.A. Menza G.B. Murray V.F. Holmes Controlled study of extrapyramidal reactions in the management of delirious, medically ill patients: Intravenous haloperidol versus intravenous haloperidol plus benzodiazepines Heart Lung 17 1988 238 241
74. M.A. Menza G.B. Murray V.F. Holmes Decreased extrapyramidal symptoms with intravenous haloperidol J Clin Psychiatry 48 1987 278 280
75. M.-M. Mesulam S.G. Waxman N. Geschwind Acute confusional states with right middle cerebral artery infarction J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 39 1976 84 89
76. E. Metzger R. Friedman Prolongation of the corrected QT and Torsades de Pointes cardiac arrhythmia associated with intravenous haloperidol in the medically ill J Clin Psychopharmacol 13 1993 128 132
77. P.S. Miller J.S. Richardson C.A. Jyu Association of low serum anticholinergic levels and cognitive impairment in elderly presurgical patients Am J Psychiatry 145 1988 342 345
78. B.A. Mizock H.C. Sabelli A. Dubin Septic encephalopathy. Evidence for altered phenylalanine metabolism and comparison with hepatic encephalopathy Arch Intern Med 150 1990 443 449
79. H. Moldofsky F.A. Lue J. Eisen The relationship of interleukin-1 and immune functions to sleep in humans Psychosom Med 48 1986 309 318
80. J.M. Monti Involvement of histamine in the control of the waking state Life Sciences 53 1993 1331 1338
81. P. Moulaert Treatment of acute nonspecific delirium with i.v. haloperidol in surgical intensive care patients Acta Anaesthesiol Belg 40 1989 183 186
82. D.D. Mousseau R.F. Butterworth Current theories on the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 206 1994 329 344
83. A.M. Murray S.E. Levkoff T.T. Wetle Acute delirium and functional decline in the hospitalized elderly patient J Gerontology 48 1993 M181 M186
84. S.T. O'Keeffe Rating the severity of delirium: The Delirium Assessment Scale Int J Geriatric Psychiatry 9 1994 551 556
85. S.T. O'Keeffe W.P. Tormey R. Glasgow Thiamine deficiency in hospitalized elderly patients Gerontology 40 1994 18 24
86. E. Ongini M.G. Caporali M. Massotti Stimulation of dopamine D-1 receptors by SKF 38393 induces EEG desynchronization and behavioral arousal Life Sciences 37 1985 2327 2333
87. F. Ovsiew Letter to editor Psychosomatics 36 1995 156
88. D. Picotte-Prillmayer J.R. DiMaggio W.F. Baile H-2 blocker delirium Psychosomatics 36 1995 74 77
89. M.M. Platt W. Breitbart M. Smith Efficacy of neuroleptics for hypoactive delirium J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 6 1994 66
90. Platt M, Trautman P, Frager G, et al: Pediatric delirium: Research update. Presented at the Academy of Psychosomatic Medicine Annual Meeting, Phoenix, Arizona, November, 1994
91. G. Pomier-Layrargues J.-F. Giguere J. Lavoie Flumazenil in cirrhotic patients with hepatic coma: A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled cross-over trial Hepatology 19 1994 32 37
92. P. Pompeii M. Foreman M.A. Rudberg Delirium in hospitalized older persons: Outcomes and predictors J Am Geriatr Soc 42 1994 809 815
93. E. Pourcher M.-J. Filteau R.H. Bourchard Efficacy of the combination of buspirone and carbamazepine in early posttraumatic delirium Am J Psychiatry 151 1994 150 151
94. B.H. Price M. Mesulam Psychiatric manifestations of right hemisphere infarctions J Nerv Ment Dis 173 1985 610 614
95. D.G. Prugh S. Wagonfeld D. Metcalf A clinical study of delirium in children and adolescents Psychosom Med 42 1980 177 195
96. P.V. Rabins M.F. Folstein Delirium and dementia: Diagnostic criteria and fatality rates Br J Psychiatry 140 1982 149 153
97. M. Resnick B.T. Burton Droperidol versus haloperidol in the initial management of acutely agitated patients J Clin Psychiatry 45 1984 298 299
98. R.L. Reyes A.K. Bhattacharyya D. Heller Traumatic head injury: Restlessness and agitation as prognosticators of physical and psychological improvement in patients Arch Phys Med Rehab 62 1981 20 23
99. R.R. Riker G.L. Fraser P.M. Cox Continuous infusion of haloperidol controls agitation in critically ill patients Crit Care Med 22 1994 433 440
100. K. Rockwood Acute confusion in elderly medical patients J Am Geriatr Soc 37 1989 150 154
101. K. Rockwood The occurrence and duration of symptoms in elderly patients with delirium J Gerontol Med Sci 48 1993 M162 M166
102. G. Rodriguez R. Testa G. Celle Reduction of cerebral blood flow in subclinical hepatic encephalopathy and its correlation with plasms free tryptophan J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 7 1987 768 772
103. J. Rosen R.A. Sweet B.H. Mulsant The DRS in a psychogeriatric inpatient setting J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 6 1994 30 35
104. C.A. Ross C.E. Peyser I. Shapiro Delirium: Phenomenologic and etiologic subtypes Int Psychogeriatr 3 1991 135 147
105. N.J. Rothwell S.J. Hopkins Cytokines and the nervous system: II. actions and mechanisms of action Trends Neurosci 18 1995 130 136
106. L. Rutherford C.N. Sessler J.L. Levenson Prospective evaluation of delirium and agitation in a medical intensive care unit Crit Care Med 19 1991 S81
107. S. Salloway J. Cummings Subcortical disease and neuropsychiatric illness J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 6 1994 93 99
108. K.M. Sanders G.B. Murray N.H. Cassem High-dose intravenous haloperidol for agitated delirium in a cardiac patient on intra-aortic balloon pump J Clin Psychopharmacol 11 1991 146 147
109. K.M. Sanders T.A. Stern Management of delirium associated with use of the intra-aortic balloon pump Am J Crit Care 2 1993 371 377
110. J. Santamaria R. Blesa E.S. Tolosa Confusional syndrome in thalamic stroke Neurology 34 1984 1618
111. S.M. Saravay H. Pardes Auditory elementary hallucinations in alcohol withdrawal psychosis Arch Gen Psychiatry 16 1967 652 658
112. D.F. Schafer E.A. Jones Hepatic encephalopathy and the gamma-aminobutyric acid neurotransmitter system Lancet 1 1982 18 20
113. J.D. Schor S.E. Levkoff L.A. Lipsitz Risk factors for delirium in hospitalized elderly JAMA 267 1992 827 831
114. S.M. Sherman C. Kock Thalamus Shepherd G.M. The Synaptic Organization of the Brain 1990 Oxford University Press New York 246 278
115. F. Sirois Delirium: 100 cases Can J Psychiatry 33 1988 375 378
116. E.P. Sloan G.W. Fenton K.P. Standage Anticholinergic drug effects on quantitative EEG, visual evoked potentials, and verbal memory Biol Psychiatry 31 1992 600 606
117. M.J. Smith W.S. Breitbart S. Passik The Memorial Delirium Assessment Scale (MDAS): Psychometric characteristics Psychosomatics 35 1994 192 193
118. E.K. Spencer V. Kafantaris M.V. Padron-Gayol Haloperidol in schizophrenic children: Early findings from a study in progress Psychopharmacol Bull 28 1992 183 186
119. G.B. Stefano T.V. Bilfinger G.L. Fricchione The immune-neuro-link and the macrophage: Post-cardiotomy delirium, HIV-associated dementia and psychiatry Prog Neurobiol 42 1994 475 488
120. T. Stern Continuous infusion of physostigmine in anticholinergic delirium: A case report J Clin Psychiatry 44 1983 463 464
121. T.A. Stern Continuous infusion of haloperidol in agitated critically ill patients Crit Care Med 22 1994 378 379
122. J.R. Swenson M. Erman J. Labelle Extrapyramidal reactions: Neuropsychiatric mimics in patients with AIDS Gen Hosp Psychiatry 11 1989 248 253
123. M.H. Teicher C.A. Gold Neuroleptic drugs: Indications and guidelines for their rational use in children and adolescents J Child Adoles Psychopharmacol 1 1990 33 56
124. C.A. Tejera S.M. Saravay E. Goldman Diphenhydramine-induced delirium in elderly hospitalized patients with mild dementia Psychosomatics 35 1994 399 402
125. G.E. Tesar G.B. Murray N.H. Cassem Response to Dr. Weiden [letter] J Clin Psychopharmacol 6 1986 375
126. G.E. Tesar G.B. Murray N.H. Cassem Use of high-dose intravenous haloperidol in the treatment of agitated cardiac patients J Clin Psychopharmacol 5 1985 344 347
127. H. Thomas E. Schwartz R. Petrilli Droperidol versus haloperidol for chemical restraint of agitated and combative patients Ann Emerg Med 21 1992 407 413
128. R.I. Thomas D.J. Cameron M.C. Fahs A prospective study of delirium and prolonged hospital stay Arch Gen Psychiatry 45 1988 937 940
129. J.E. Tisdale J.C. Kambe M.S.S. Chow The effect of haloperidol on ventricular fibrillation threshold in pigs Pharmacol Toxicol 69 1991 327 329
130. P.T. Trzepacz Delirium Silver J.M. Yudofsky S.C. Hales R.E. Neuropsychiatry of Traumatic Brain Injury 1994 American Psychiatric Press Washington, DC 189 218
131. P.T. Trzepacz Neuropathogenesis of delirium: A need to focus our research Psychosomatics 35 1994 374 391
132. P.T. Trzepacz A review of delirium assessment instruments Gen Hosp Psychiatry 16 1994 397 405
133. P.T. Trzepacz R.W. Baker J. Greenhouse A symptom rating scale for delirium Psychiatry Res 23 1988 89 97
134. P.T. Trzepacz M.A. Dew Further analyses of the Delirium Rating Scale Gen Hosp Psychiatry 17 1995 75 79
135. P.T. Trzepacz J. Francis Low serum albumin and risk of delirium [letter] Am J Psychiatry 147 1990 675
136. P.T. Trzepacz G.B. Teague Z.J. Lipowski Delirium and other organic mental disorders in a general hospital Gen Hosp Psychiatry 7 1985 101 106
137. L.E. Tune N.F. Dainloth A. Holland Association of postoperative deliriuer they can manage the care of persons with mental health needs and resist the temptation to manage only the financial risk. Organizations that successfully addresm with raised serum levels of anticholinergic drugs Lancet 2 1981 651 653
138. R.C. van der Mast Detecting and measuring the severity of delirium with the symptom rating scale for delirium Delirium After Cardiac Surgery 1994 Benecke Consultants Amsterdam 78 89
139. R.C. van der Mast D. Fekkes W.W. van den Broek Reduced cerebral tryptophan availability as a possible cause for post-cardiotomy delirium Psychosomatics 35 1994 195
140. A.M. van Hemert R.C. van der Mast M.W. Hengeveld Excess mortality in general hospital patients with delirium: A 5-year follow-up study of 519 patients seen in psychiatric consultation J Psychosom Res 38 1994 339 346
141. A.M.H. van Leeuwen J. Molders P. Sterkmans Droperidol in acutely agitated patients: A double-blind placebo-controlled study J Nerv Ment Dis 164 1977 280 283
142. P.E. Vermeersch The clinical assessment of confusion: A Appl Nurs Res 3 1990 128 133
143. Y. Wada N. Yamaguchi Delirium in the elderly: Relationship of clinical symptoms to outcome Dementia 4 1993 113 116
144. W.W. Weddington The mortality of delirium: An under-appreciated problem? Psychosomatics 23 1982 1232 1235
145. D.R. Weinberger The connectionist approach to the prefrontal cortex J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 5 1993 241 253
146. M. Williams S. Ward E. Campbell Confusion: Testing vs observation J Gerontol Nursing 14 1988 25 30
147. P.D. Williams D.R. Helton The proconvulsive activity of quinolone antibiotics in an animal model Toxicol Lett 58 1991 23 28
148. J.L. Wilt A.M. Minnema R.F. Johnson Torsades de Pointes associated with the use of intravenous haloperidol Ann Intern Med 119 1993 391 394
149. C.-S. Zee-Cheng C.E. Mueller C.F. Siefert Haloperidol and torsades de pointes Ann Intern Med 102 1985 418