Chemoprevention of lung cancer: Diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American college of chest physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines

Chest

Volumn 143, Issue 5 SUPPL, 2013, Pages

  Szabo, Eva ^a   Mao, Jenny T ^b   Lam, Stephen ^c   Reid, Mary E ^d   Keith, Robert L ^e  

^a NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE   (United States)

^b NEW MEXICO VA HEALTH CARE SYSTEM   (United States)

^c BRITISH COLUMBIA CANCER AGENCY   (Canada)

^d ROSWELL PARK CANCER INSTITUTE   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCYSTEINE; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ANETHOLE TRITHIONE; ARACHIDONIC ACID; ASCORBIC ACID; BETA CAROTENE; BUDESONIDE; CELECOXIB; CYCLOOXYGENASE 1; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2; FLUTICASONE; ILOPROST; INOSITOL; ISOTRETINOIN; KI 67 ANTIGEN; LIPOXYGENASE; LIPOXYGENASE INHIBITOR; MOLYBDENUM; NICOTINIC ACID; PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL 3 KINASE; PLACEBO; RETINOL; RETINOL PALMITATE; RIBOFLAVIN; SELENIUM; SELENOMETHIONINE; UNINDEXED DRUG; ZILEUTON; ZINC;

ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; ARTICLE; ASBESTOSIS; ASTHMA; BLEEDING; BLOATING; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER INHIBITION; CANCER MORTALITY; CANCER PREVENTION; CANCER PROGNOSIS; CANCER RECURRENCE; CANCER REHABILITATION; CANCER RISK; CANCER STAGING; CHEMOPROPHYLAXIS; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; COLORECTAL CANCER; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DOWN REGULATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG TARGETING; EVALUATION RESEARCH; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FLATULENCE; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; INTERVENTION STUDY; LUNG CANCER; LUNG CARCINOGENESIS; LUNG CARCINOMA; LUNG DYSPLASIA; LUNG NODULE; LUNG NON SMALL CELL CANCER; PHASE 1 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PHASE 2 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PHASE 3 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PRIMARY PREVENTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTATE CANCER; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REPRODUCIBILITY; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; RISK REDUCTION; SAMPLE SIZE; SECONDARY PREVENTION; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SKIN CANCER; SMOKING; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; UPREGULATION; XEROSTOMIA;

EID: 84877678948     PISSN: 00123692     EISSN: 19313543     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1378/chest.12-2348     Document Type: Article

References (175)

1. Siegel R, Naishadham D, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2012. CA Cancer J Clin. 2012; 62 (1): 10-29.
2. Jemal A, Bray F, Center MM, Ferlay J, Ward E, Forman D. Global cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin. 2011; 61(2): 69-90.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Quitting smoking among adults-United States, 2001-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011; 60 (44): 1513-1519.
4. Peto R, Darby S, Deo H, Silcocks P, Whitley E, Doll R. Smoking, smoking cessation, and lung cancer in the UK since 1950: combination of national statistics with two casecontrol studies. BMJ. 2000; 321 (7257): 323-329.
5. Tong L, Spitz MR, Fueger JJ, Amos CA. Lung carcinoma in former smokers. Cancer. 1996; 78 (5): 1004-1010.
6. Lynch TJ, Adjei AA, Bunn PA Jr, et al. Summary statement: novel agents in the treatment of lung cancer: advances in epidermal growth factor receptor-targeted agents. Clin Cancer Res. 2006; 12 (14 pt 2): 4365s-4371s.
7. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, et al. Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 1996; 334 (18): 1150-1155.
8. Wistuba II, Lam S, Behrens C, et al. Molecular damage in the bronchial epithelium of current and former smokers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1997; 89 (18): 1366-1373.
9. Dakubo GD, Jakupciak JP, Birch-Machin MA, Parr RL. Clinical implications and utility of field cancerization. Cancer Cell Int. 2007; 7 : 2.
10. Nicholson AG, Perry LJ, Cury PM, et al. Reproducibility of the WHO/IASLC grading system for pre-invasive squamous lesions of the bronchus: a study of inter-observer and intra-observer variation. Histopathology. 2001; 38 (3): 202-208.
11. O'Callaghan DS, O'Donnell D, O'Connell F, O'Byrne KJ. The role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of non-small cell lung cancer. J Thorac Oncol. 2010; 5 (12): 2024-2036.
12. Pao W, Iafrate AJ, Su Z. Genetically informed lung cancer medicine. J Pathol. 2011; 223 (2): 230-240.
13. Nana-Sinkam SP, Powell CA, Molecular biology of lung cancer: diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2013; 143(5)(suppl): e30S-e39S.
14. Slaughter DP, Southwick HW, Smejkal W. Field cancerization in oral stratified squamous epithelium; clinical implications of multicentric origin. Cancer. 1953; 6 (5): 963-968.
15. Kadara H, Wistuba II. Field cancerization in non-small cell lung cancer: implications in disease pathogenesis. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2012; 9 (2): 38-42.
16. Chuang SC, Scelo G, Tonita JM, et al. Risk of second primary cancer among patients with head and neck cancers: A pooled analysis of 13 cancer registries. Int J Cancer. 2008; 123 (10): 2390-2396.
17. Cokkinides V, Bandi P, McMahon C, Jemal A, Glynn T, Ward E. Tobacco control in the United States-recent progress and opportunities. CA Cancer J Clin. 2009; 59(6): 352-365.
18. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Vital signs: current cigarette smoking among adults aged. or 5 18 years-United States, 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010; 59 (35): 1135-1140.
19. Stead LF, Lancaster T. Group behaviour therapy programmes for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005; (2): CD001007.
20. Hughes JR, Stead LF, Lancaster T. Antidepressants for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(1): CD000031.
21. Cahill K, Stead LF, Lancaster T. Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011; (2): CD006103.
22. Stead LF, Perera R, Bullen C, Mant D, Lancaster T. Nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008; (1): CD000146.
23. White AR, Rampes H, Liu JP, Stead LF, Campbell J. Acupuncture and related interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011; (1): CD000009.
24. Samet JM. The 1990 Report of the Surgeon General: The Health Benefits of Smoking Cessation. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990; 142 (5): 993-994.
25. Anthonisen NR, Skeans MA, Wise RA, Manfreda J, Kanner RE, Connett JE; Lung Health Study Research Group. The effects of a smoking cessation intervention on 14.5-year mortality: a randomized clinical trial. Ann Intern Med. 2005; 142 (4): 233-239.
26. Sporn MB, Dunlop NM, Newton DL, Smith JM. Prevention of chemical carcinogenesis by vitamin A and its synthetic analogs (retinoids). Fed Proc. 1976; 35 (6): 1332-1338.
27. Tang JY, Mackay-Wiggan JM, Aszterbaum M, et al. Inhibiting the hedgehog pathway in patients with the basal-cell nevus syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2012; 366 (23): 2180-2188.
28. Fisher B, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL, et al. Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 Study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998; 90 (18): 1371-1388.
29. Thompson IM, Goodman PJ, Tangen CM, et al. The influence of finasteride on the development of prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2003; 349 (3): 215-224.
30. Lewis SZ, Diekemper R, Addrizzo-Harris DJ. Methodology for development of guidelines for lung cancer: diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2013; 143 (5)(suppl): 41S-50S.
31. Szabo E. Selecting targets for cancer prevention: where do we go from here? Nat Rev Cancer. 2006; 6 (11): 867-874.
32. Weinstein IB. Cancer. Addiction to oncogenes-the Achilles heal of cancer. Science. 2002; 297 (5578): 63-64.
33. Szabo E. Primer: first do no harm-when is it appropriate to plan a cancer prevention clinical trial? Nat Clin Pract Oncol. 2008; 5 (6): 348-356.
34. Baron JA, Sandler RS, Bresalier RS, et al. Cardiovascular events associated with rofecoxib: final analysis of the APPROVe trial. Lancet. 2008; 372 (9651): 1756-1764.
35. Lubet RA, Szabo E, Christov K, et al. Effects of gefitinib (Iressa) on mammary cancers: preventive studies with varied dosages, combinations with vorozole or targretin, and biomarker changes. Mol Cancer Ther. 2008; 7 (4): 972-979.
36. Silvestri GA, Nietert PJ, Zoller J, Carter C, Bradford D. Attitudes towards screening for lung cancer among smokers and their non-smoking counterparts. Thorax. 2007; 62(2): 126-130.
37. Lantz PM, Richardson LC, Sever LE, et al. Mass screening in low-income populations: the challenges of securing diagnostic and treatment services in a national cancer screening program. J Health Polit Policy Law. 2000; 25 (3): 451-471.
38. Alberg A, Brock M, Ford J, Samet JM, Spivack SD. Epidemiology of lung cancer: diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2013; 143 (5)(suppl): e1S-e29S.
39. Halpern MT, Gillespie BW, Warner KE. Patterns of absolute risk of lung cancer mortality in former smokers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993; 85 (6): 457-464.
40. Mannino DM, Aguayo SM, Petty TL, Redd SC. Low lung function and incident lung cancer in the United States: data From the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey follow-up. Arch Intern Med. 2003; 163 (12): 1475-1480.
41. Tockman MS, Anthonisen NR, Wright EC, Donithan MG. Airways obstruction and the risk for lung cancer. Ann Intern Med. 1987; 106 (4): 512-518.
42. Bach PB, Kattan MW, Thornquist MD, et al. Variations in lung cancer risk among smokers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003; 95 (6): 470-478.
43. Bailey-Wilson JE, Amos CI, Pinney SM, et al. A major lung cancer susceptibility locus maps to chromosome 6q23-25. Am J Hum Genet. 2004; 75 (3): 460-474.
44. Hung RJ, McKay JD, Gaborieau V, et al. A susceptibility locus for lung cancer maps to nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit genes on 15q25. Nature. 2008; 452 (7187): 633-637.
45. Amos CI, Wu X, Broderick P, et al. Genome-wide association scan of tag SNPs identifies a susceptibility locus for lung cancer at 15q25.1. Nat Genet. 2008; 40 (5): 616-622.
46. Thorgeirsson TE, Geller F, Sulem P, et al. A variant associated with nicotine dependence, lung cancer and peripheral arterial disease. Nature. 2008; 452 (7187): 638-642.
47. Huang YT, Lin X, Liu Y, et al. Cigarette smoking increases copy number alterations in nonsmall-cell lung cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011; 108 (39): 16345-16350.
48. Johnson BE. Second lung cancers in patients after treatment for an initial lung cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998; 90 (18): 1335-1345.
49. Saccomanno G, Archer VE, Auerbach O, Saunders RP, Brennan LM. Development of carcinoma of the lung as reflected in exfoliated cells. Cancer. 1974; 33 (1): 256-270.
50. Prindiville SA, Byers T, Hirsch FR, et al. Sputum cytological atypia as a predictor of incident lung cancer in a cohort of heavy smokers with airflow obstruction. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2003; 12 (10): 987-993.
51. Kennedy TC, Franklin WA, Prindiville SA, et al. High prevalence of occult endobronchial malignancy in high risk patients with moderate sputum atypia. Lung Cancer. 2005; 49 (2): 187-191.
52. Byers T, Wolf HJ, Franklin WA, et al. Sputum cytologic atypia predicts incident lung cancer: defining latency and histologic specificity. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2008; 17 (1): 158-162.
53. Frost JK, Ball WC Jr, Levin ML, et al. Early lung cancer detection: results of the initial (prevalence) radiologic and cytologic screening in the Johns Hopkins study. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1984; 130 (4): 549-554.
54. Varella-Garcia M, Schulte AP, Wolf HJ, et al. The detection of chromosomal aneusomy by fluorescence in situ hybridization in sputum predicts lung cancer incidence. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2010; 3 (4): 447-453.
55. Knoke JD, Shanks TG, Vaughn JW, Thun MJ, Burns DM. Lung cancer mortality is related to age in addition to duration and intensity of cigarette smoking: an analysis of CPS-I data. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2004; 13 (6): 949-957.
56. Cronin KA, Gail MH, Zou Z, Bach PB, Virtamo J, Albanes D. Validation of a model of lung cancer risk prediction among smokers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2006; 98 (9): 637-640.
57. Cassidy A, Myles JP, van Tongeren M, et al. The LLP risk model: an individual risk prediction model for lung cancer. Br J Cancer. 2008; 98 (2): 270-276.
58. Spitz MR, Etzel CJ, Dong Q, et al. An expanded risk prediction model for lung cancer. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2008; 1 (4): 250-254.
59. Tammemagi CM, Pinsky PF, Caporaso NE, et al. Lung cancer risk prediction: Prostate, Lung, Colorectal And Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial models and validation. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011; 103 (13): 1058-1068.
60. Tammemagi MC, Lam SC, McWilliams AM, Sin DD. Incremental value of pulmonary function and sputum DNA image cytometry in lung cancer risk prediction. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2011; 4 (4): 552-561.
61. Calabrò E, Randi G, La Vecchia C, et al. Lung function predicts lung cancer risk in smokers: a tool for targeting screening programmes. Eur Respir J. 2010; 35 (1): 146-151.
62. Young RP, Hopkins RJ, Christmas T, Black PN, Metcalf P, Gamble GD. COPD prevalence is increased in lung cancer, independent of age, sex and smoking history. Eur Respir J. 2009; 34 (2): 380-386.
63. Young RP, Hopkins RJ, Hay BA, et al. A gene-based risk score for lung cancer susceptibility in smokers and ex-smokers. Postgrad Med J. 2009; 85 (1008): 515-524.
64. Maisonneuve P, Bagnardi V, Bellomi M, et al. Lung cancer risk prediction to select smokers for screening CT-a model based on the Italian COSMOS trial. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2011; 4 (11): 1778-1789.
65. Blumberg J, Block G. The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study in Finland. Nutr Rev. 1994; 52 (7): 242-245.
66. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, et al. Risk factors for lung cancer and for intervention effects in CARET, the Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996; 88 (21): 1550-1559.
67. Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Manson JE, et al. Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 1996; 334 (18): 1145-1149.
68. Lee IM, Cook NR, Manson JE, Buring JE, Hennekens CH. Beta-carotene supplementation and incidence of cancer and cardiovascular disease: the Women's Health Study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999; 91 (24): 2102-2106.
69. Tanvetyanon T, Bepler G. Beta-carotene in multivitamins and the possible risk of lung cancer among smokers versus former smokers: a meta-analysis and evaluation of national brands. Cancer. 2008; 113 (1): 150-157.
70. Lonn E, Bosch J, Yusuf S, et al; HOPE and HOPE-TOO Trial Investigators. Effects of long-term vitamin E supplementation on cardiovascular events and cancer: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005; 293 (11): 1338-1347.
71. Lee IM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM, et al. Vitamin E in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer: the Women's Health Study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005; 294 (1): 56-65.
72. van Zandwijk N, Dalesio O, Pastorino U, de Vries N, van Tinteren H. EUROSCAN, a randomized trial of vitamin A and N-acetylcysteine in patients with head and neck cancer or lung cancer. For the EUropean Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Head and Neck and Lung Cancer Cooperative Groups. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000; 92(12): 977-986.
73. Lippman SM, Lee JJ, Karp DD, et al. Randomized phase III intergroup trial of isotretinoin to prevent second primary tumors in stage I non-small-cell lung cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001; 93 (8): 605-618.
74. Peto R, Gray R, Collins R, et al. Randomised trial of prophylactic daily aspirin in British male doctors. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1988; 296 (6618): 313-316.
75. Final report on the aspirin component of the ongoing Physicians' Health Study. Steering Committee of the Physicians' Health Study Research Group. N Engl J Med. 1989; 321 (3): 129-135.
76. Cook NR, Lee IM, Gaziano JM, et al. Low-dose aspirin in the primary prevention of cancer: the Women's Health Study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005; 294(1): 47-55.
77. Thun MJ, Henley SJ, Patrono C. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs as anticancer agents: mechanistic, pharmacologic, and clinical issues. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002; 94 (4): 252-266.
78. Elwood PC, Gallagher AM, Duthie GG, Mur LA, Morgan G. Aspirin, salicylates, and cancer. Lancet. 2009; 373 (9671): 1301-1309.
79. Cuzick J, Otto F, Baron JA, et al. Aspirin and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for cancer prevention: an international consensus statement. Lancet Oncol. 2009; 10 (5): 501-507.
80. Rothwell PM, Wilson M, Elwin CE, et al. Long-term effect of aspirin on colorectal cancer incidence and mortality: 20-year follow-up of five randomised trials. Lancet. 2010; 376 (9754): 1741-1750.
81. Rothwell PM, Fowkes FG, Belch JF, Ogawa H, Warlow CP, Meade TW. Effect of daily aspirin on long-term risk of death due to cancer: analysis of individual patient data from randomised trials. Lancet. 2011; 377 (9759): 31-41.
82. Kamangar F, Qiao YL, Yu B, et al. Lung cancer chemoprevention: a randomized, double-blind trial in Linxian, China. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2006; 15 (8): 1562-1564.
83. van den Brandt PA, Goldbohm RA, van 't Veer P, et al. A prospective cohort study on selenium status and the risk of lung cancer. Cancer Res. 1993; 53 (20): 4860-4865.
84. Reid ME, Duffield-Lillico AJ, Garland L, Turnbull BW, Clark LC, Marshall JR. Selenium supplementation and lung cancer incidence: an update of the nutritional prevention of cancer trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2002; 11 (11): 1285-1291.
85. Karp DD, Lee SJ, Shaw GL, Johnson DH, Goodman GE. A phase III, intergroup, randomized, double-blind, chemoprevention trial of Selenium (Se) supplementation in resected stage I non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) [Abstract]. J Clin Oncol. 2010; 28 : 18s (suppl): CRA7004.
86. Fritz H, Kennedy D, Fergusson D, et al. Selenium and lung cancer: a systematic review and meta analysis. PLoS ONE. 2011; 6 (11): e26259.
87. Freedman LS, Graubard BI, Schatzkin A. Statistical validation of intermediate endpoints for chronic diseases. Stat Med. 1992; 11 (2): 167-178.
88. Baker SG, Kramer BS, Prorok PC. Development tracks for cancer prevention markers. Dis Markers. 2004; 20(2): 97-102.
89. Schatzkin A, Gail M. The promise and peril of surrogate end points in cancer research. Nat Rev Cancer. 2002; 2(1): 19-27.
90. Szabo E. Assessing efficacy in early-phase cancer prevention clinical trials: the case of ki-67 in the lung. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2010; 3 (2): 128-131.
91. Lippman SM, Lee JS, Lotan R, Hittelman W, Wargovich MJ, Hong WK. Biomarkers as intermediate end points in chemoprevention trials. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1990; 82 (7): 555-560.
92. Bota S, Auliac JB, Paris C, et al. Follow-up of bronchial precancerous lesions and carcinoma in situ using fluorescence endoscopy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001; 164 (9): 1688-1693.
93. Venmans BJ, van Boxem TJ, Smit EF, Postmus PE, Sutedja TG. Outcome of bronchial carcinoma in situ. Chest. 2000; 117 (6): 1572-1576.
94. Hassanein M, Rahman JS, Chaurand P, Massion PP. Advances in proteomic strategies toward the early detection of lung cancer. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2011; 8 (2): 183-188.
95. Kerr KM. Pulmonary preinvasive neoplasia. J Clin Pathol. 2001; 54 (4): 257-271.
96. Kim HY, Shim YM, Lee KS, Han J, Yi CA, Kim YK. Persistent pulmonary nodular ground-glass opacity at thin-section CT: histopathologic comparisons. Radiology. 2007; 245 (1): 267-275.
97. Ohtsuka T, Watanabe K, Kaji M, Naruke T, Suemasu K. A clinicopathological study of resected pulmonary nodules with focal pure ground-glass opacity. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2006; 30 (1): 160-163.
98. Veronesi G, Szabo E, Decensi A, et al. Randomized phase II trial of inhaled budesonide versus placebo in high-risk individuals with CT screen-detected lung nodules. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2011; 4 (1): 34-42.
99. Kim ES, Hong WK, Lee JJ, et al. Biological activity of celecoxib in the bronchial epithelium of current and former smokers. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2010; 3 (2): 148-159.
100. Mao JT, Roth MD, Fishbein MC, et al. Lung cancer chemoprevention with celecoxib in former smokers. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2011; 4 (7): 984-993.
101. Gustafson AM, Soldi R, Anderlind C, et al. Airway PI3K pathway activation is an early and reversible event in lung cancer development. Sci Transl Med. 2010; 2 (26): 26ra25.
102. Brown JR, DuBois RN. Cyclooxygenase as a target in lung cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2004; 10 (12 Pt 2): 4266s-4269s.
103. Fu H, Zhang J, Pan J, et al. Chemoprevention of lung carcinogenesis by the combination of aerosolized budesonide and oral pioglitazone in A/J mice. Mol Carcinog. 2011; 50 (12): 913-921.
104. Hastürk S, Kemp B, Kalapurakal SK, Kurie JM, Hong WK, Lee JS. Expression of cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2 in bronchial epithelium and nonsmall cell lung carcinoma. Cancer. 2002; 94 (4): 1023-1031.
105. Khuri FR, Wu H, Lee JJ, et al. Cyclooxygenase-2 overexpression is a marker of poor prognosis in stage I non-small cell lung cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2001; 7 (4): 861-867.
106. Kisley LR, Barrett BS, Dwyer-Nield LD, Bauer AK, Thompson DC, Malkinson AM. Celecoxib reduces pulmonary inflammation but not lung tumorigenesis in mice. Carcinogenesis. 2002; 23 (10): 1653-1660.
107. Masferrer JL, Leahy KM, Koki AT, et al. Antiangiogenic and antitumor activities of cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors. Cancer Res. 2000; 60 (5): 1306-1311.
108. Eibl G, Bruemmer D, Okada Y, et al. PGE(2) is generated by specific COX-2 activity and increases VEGF production in COX-2-expressing human pancreatic cancer cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2003; 306 (4): 887-897.
109. Dohadwala M, Batra RK, Luo J, et al. Autocrine/paracrine prostaglandin E2 production by non-small cell lung cancer cells regulates matrix metalloproteinase-2 and CD44 in cyclooxygenase-2-dependent invasion. J Biol Chem. 2002; 277 (52): 50828-50833.
110. Krysan K, Dalwadi H, Sharma S, Põld M, Dubinett S. Cyclooxygenase 2-dependent expression of survivin is critical for apoptosis resistance in non-small cell lung cancer. Cancer Res. 2004; 64 (18): 6359-6362.
111. Huang M, Stolina M, Sharma S, et al. Non-small cell lung cancer cyclooxygenase-2-dependent regulation of cytokine balance in lymphocytes and macrophages: up-regulation of interleukin 10 and down-regulation of interleukin 12 production. Cancer Res. 1998; 58 (6): 1208-1216.
112. Mao JT, Tsu IH, Dubinett SM, et al. Modulation of pulmonary leukotriene B4 production by cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors and lipopolysaccharide. Clin Cancer Res. 2004; 10 (20): 6872-6878.
113. Avis IM, Jett M, Boyle T, et al. Growth control of lung cancer by interruption of 5-lipoxygenase-mediated growth factor signaling. J Clin Invest. 1996; 97 (3): 806-813.
114. Rioux N, Castonguay A. Inhibitors of lipoxygenase: a new class of cancer chemopreventive agents. Carcinogenesis. 1998; 19 (8): 1393-1400.
115. Romano M, Claria J. Cyclooxygenase-2 and 5-lipoxygenase converging functions on cell proliferation and tumor angiogenesis: implications for cancer therapy. FASEB J. 2003; 17 (14): 1986-1995.
116. Menter DG, Schilsky RL, DuBois RN. Cyclooxygenase-2 and cancer treatment: understanding the risk should be worth the reward. Clin Cancer Res. 2010; 16 (5): 1384-1390.
117. Mao JT, Cui X, Reckamp K, et al. Chemoprevention strategies with cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors for lung cancer. Clin Lung Cancer. 2005; 7 (1): 30-39.
118. Masferrer JL, Koki A, Seibert K. COX-2 inhibitors. A new class of antiangiogenic agents. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1999; 889 : 84-86.
119. Hida T, Kozaki K, Muramatsu H, et al. Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor induces apoptosis and enhances cytotoxicity of various anticancer agents in non-small cell lung cancer cell lines. Clin Cancer Res. 2000; 6 (5): 2006-2011.
120. Rioux N, Castonguay A. Prevention of NNK-induced lung tumorigenesis in A/J mice by acetylsalicylic acid and NS-398. Cancer Res. 1998; 58 (23): 5354-5360.
121. Mao JT, Roth MD, Serio KJ, et al. Celecoxib modulates the capacity for prostaglandin E2 and interleukin-10 production in alveolar macrophages from active smokers. Clin Cancer Res. 2003; 9 (16 Pt 1): 5835-5841.
122. Mao JT, Fishbein MC, Adams B, et al. Celecoxib decreases Ki-67 proliferative index in active smokers. Clin Cancer Res. 2006; 12 (1): 314-320.
123. Vane JR. Prostacyclin: a hormone with a therapeutic potential. The Sir Henry Dale Lecture for 1981. J Endocrinol. 1982; 95 (2): 3P-43P.
124. Schneider MR, Tang DG, Schirner M, Honn KV. Prostacyclin and its analogues: antimetastatic effects and mechanisms of action. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 1994; 13 (3-4): 349-364.
125. Keith RL, Miller YE, Hoshikawa Y, et al. Manipulation of pulmonary prostacyclin synthase expression prevents murine lung cancer. Cancer Res. 2002; 62 (3): 734-740.
126. Keith RL, Miller YE, Hudish TM, et al. Pulmonary prostacyclin synthase overexpression chemoprevents tobacco smoke lung carcinogenesis in mice. Cancer Res. 2004; 64 (16): 5897-5904.
127. Nemenoff R, Meyer AM, Hudish TM, et al. Prostacyclin prevents murine lung cancer independent of the membrane receptor by activation of peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor gamma. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2008; 1 (5): 349-356.
128. Keith RL, Blatchford PJ, Kittelson J, et al. Oral iloprost improves endobronchial dysplasia in former smokers. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2011; 4 (6): 793-802.
129. National Institutes of Health Clinical Center. Modulation of arachidonic acid metabolism by chemopreventive agents in smokers. NCT01021215. ClimicalTrials.gov. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health; 2009. http://www.clinicaltrials. gov/ct2/show/NCT01021215? term5zileuton1and1celecoxib&rank51. Last updated November 2, 2012.
130. Lam S, MacAulay C, Le Riche JC, et al. A randomized phase IIb trial of anethole dithiolethione in smokers with bronchial dysplasia. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002; 94 (13): 1001-1009.
131. Wattenberg LW, Wiedmann TS, Estensen RD, et al. Chemoprevention of pulmonary carcinogenesis by brief exposures to aerosolized budesonide or beclomethasone dipropionate and by the combination of aerosolized budesonide and dietary myo-inositol. Carcinogenesis. 2000; 21(2): 179-182.
132. Pereira MA, Li Y, Gunning WT, et al. Prevention of mouse lung tumors by budesonide and its modulation of biomarkers. Carcinogenesis. 2002; 23 (7): 1185-1192.
133. Estensen RD, Jordan MM, Wiedmann TS, Galbraith AR, Steele VE, Wattenberg LW. Effect of chemopreventive agents on separate stages of progression of benzo[alpha] pyrene induced lung tumors in A/J mice. Carcinogenesis. 2004; 25 (2): 197-201.
134. Parimon T, Chien JW, Bryson CL, McDonell MB, Udris EM, Au DH. Inhaled corticosteroids and risk of lung cancer among patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007; 175 (7): 712-719.
135. Lam S, leRiche JC, McWilliams A, et al. A randomized phase IIb trial of pulmicort turbuhaler (budesonide) in people with dysplasia of the bronchial epithelium. Clin Cancer Res. 2004; 10 (19): 6502-6511.
136. van den Berg RM, Teertstra HJ, van Zandwijk N, et al. CT detected indeterminate pulmonary nodules in a chemoprevention trial of fluticasone. Lung Cancer. 2008; 60 (1): 57-61.
137. Estensen RD, Wattenberg LW. Studies of chemopreventive effects of myo-inositol on benzo[a]pyrene-induced neoplasia of the lung and forestomach of female A/J mice. Carcinogenesis. 1993; 14 (9): 1975-1977.
138. Wattenberg LW, Estensen RD. Chemopreventive effects of myo-inositol and dexamethasone on benzo[a]pyrene and 4-(methylnitrosoamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1- butanone-induced pulmonary carcinogenesis in female A/J mice. Cancer Res. 1996; 56 (22): 5132-5135.
139. Nemenoff RA, Weiser-Evans M, Winn RA. Activation and molecular targets of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma ligands in lung cancer. PPAR Res. 2008 : 156875.
140. Ondrey F. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma pathway targeting in carcinogenesis: implications for chemoprevention. Clin Cancer Res. 2009; 15 (1): 2-8.
141. Chang TH, Szabo E. Induction of differentiation and apoptosis by ligands of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma in non-small cell lung cancer. Cancer Res. 2000; 60 (4): 1129-1138.
142. Keshamouni VG, Reddy RC, Arenberg DA, et al. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma activation inhibits tumor progression in non-small-cell lung cancer. Oncogene. 2004; 23 (1): 100-108.
143. Lyon CM, Klinge DM, Do KC, et al. Rosiglitazone prevents the progression of preinvasive lung cancer in a murine model. Carcinogenesis. 2009; 30 (12): 2095-2099.
144. Wang Y, James M, Wen W, et al. Chemopreventive effects of pioglitazone on chemically induced lung carcinogenesis in mice. Mol Cancer Ther. 2010; 9 (11): 3074-3082.
145. Govindarajan R, Ratnasinghe L, Simmons DL, et al. Thiaz olidinediones and the risk of lung, prostate, and colon cancer in patients with diabetes. J Clin Oncol. 2007; 25 (12): 1476-1481.
146. Ferrara A, Lewis JD, Quesenberry CP Jr, et al. Cohort study of pioglitazone and cancer incidence in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2011; 34 (4): 923-929.
147. National Institutes of Health Clinical Center. Pioglitazone for lung cancer prevention. NCT00780234. ClinicalTrials. gov. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health; 2008. http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00780234? term5 NCT00780234&rank51. Updated January 8, 2013.
148. Tsao AS, McDonnell T, Lam S, et al. Increased phospho-AKT (Ser(473)) expression in bronchial dysplasia: implications for lung cancer prevention studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2003; 12 (7): 660-664.
149. West KA, Brognard J, Clark AS, et al. Rapid Akt activation by nicotine and a tobacco carcinogen modulates the phenotype of normal human airway epithelial cells. J Clin Invest. 2003; 111 (1): 81-90.
150. West KA, Linnoila IR, Belinsky SA, Harris CC, Dennis PA. Tobacco carcinogen-induced cellular transformation increases activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3 9 -kinase/Akt pathway in vitro and in vivo. Cancer Res. 2004; 64(2): 446-451.
151. Yang CS, Wang X, Lu G, Picinich SC. Cancer prevention by tea: animal studies, molecular mechanisms and human relevance. Nat Rev Cancer. 2009; 9 (6): 429-439.
152. Chung FL, Morse MA, Eklind KI, Xu Y. Inhibition of tobacco-specific nitrosamine-induced lung tumorigenesis by compounds derived from cruciferous vegetables and green tea. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1993; 686 : 186-201.
153. Sartippour MR, Heber D, Ma J, Lu Q, Go VL, Nguyen M. Green tea and its catechins inhibit breast cancer xenografts. Nutr Cancer. 2001; 40 (2): 149-156.
154. Li GX, Chen YK, Hou Z, et al. Pro-oxidative activities and dose-response relationship of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate in the inhibition of lung cancer cell growth: a comparative study in vivo and in vitro. Carcinogenesis. 2010; 31 (5): 902-910.
155. National Institutes of Health Clinical Center. Green tea or polyphenon E in preventing lung cancer in former smokers with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. NCT00363805. ClinicalTrials.gov. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health; 2006. http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00363805? term5NCT00363805&rank51. Updated November 1, 2010.
156. National Institutes of Health Clinical Center. Green tea extract in preventing cancer in former and current heavy smokers with abnormal sputum. NCT 00573885. ClinicalTrials.gov. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health; 2007. http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00573885?term5NC T00573885& rank51. Updated March 7, 2012.
157. Mao JT, Nie WX, Tsu IH, et al. White tea extract induces apoptosis in non-small cell lung cancer cells: the role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma and 15-lipoxygenases. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2010; 3 (9): 1132-1140.
158. Hershberger PA, Yu WD, Modzelewski RA, Rueger RM, Johnson CS, Trump DL. Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol) enhances paclitaxel antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo and accelerates paclitaxel-induced apoptosis. Clin Cancer Res. 2001; 7 (4): 1043-1051.
159. Hershberger PA, Modzelewski RA, Shurin ZR, Rueger RM, Trump DL, Johnson CS. 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol (1,25-D3) inhibits the growth of squamous cell carcinoma and down-modulates p21(Waf1/Cip1) in vitro and in vivo. Cancer Res. 1999; 59 (11): 2644-2649.
160. National Institutes of Health Clinical Center. Calcitriol in preventing lung cancer in smokers and former smokers at highrisk of lung cancer. NCT00690924. National Institutes of Health Clinical Center. 2008. http://www.clinicaltrials. gov/ct2/show/NCT00690924?term5NCT00690924&rank5 1. Updated December 17, 2012.
161. Hirsch FR, Scagliotti GV, Langer CJ, Varella-Garcia M, Franklin WA. Epidermal growth factor family of receptors in preneoplasia and lung cancer: perspectives for targeted therapies. Lung Cancer. 2003; 41 (suppl 1): S29-S42.
162. Rusch V, Klimstra D, Linkov I, Dmitrovsky E. Aberrant expression of p53 or the epidermal growth factor receptor is frequent in early bronchial neoplasia and coexpression precedes squamous cell carcinoma development. Cancer Res. 1995; 55 (6): 1365-1372.
163. Meert AP, Verdebout JM, Martin B, Ninane V, Feoli F, Sculier JP. Epidermal growth factor receptor expression in pre-invasive and early invasive bronchial lesions. Eur Respir J. 2003; 21 (4): 611-615.
164. National Institutes of Health Clinical Center. Erlotinib hydrochloride in treating patients with previously treated non-small cell lung cancer, head and neck cancer, or esophageal cancer and precancerous lesions of the lung. NCT 01013831. ClinicalTrials.gov. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health; 2009. http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01013831? term5erlotinib1AND1lung1cancer1 prevention&rank57. Updated March 9, 2011.
165. Jarvis WD, Grant S. Protein kinase C targeting in antineoplastic treatment strategies. Invest New Drugs. 1999; 17 (3): 227-240.
166. Körner A, Mudduluru G, Manegold C, Allgayer H. Enzastaurin inhibits invasion and metastasis in lung cancer by diverse molecules. Br J Cancer. 2010; 103 (6): 802-811.
167. Lee SH, Chen T, Zhou J, Hofmann J, Bepler G. Protein kinase C-beta gene variants, pathway activation, and enzastaurin activity in lung cancer. Clin Lung
168. Zhang Z, Wang Y, Lantry LE, et al. Farnesyltransferase inhibitors are potent lung cancer chemopreventive agents in A/J mice with a dominant-negative p53 and/or heterozygous deletion of Ink4a/Arf. Oncogene. 2003; 22 (40): 6257-6265.
169. Gunning WT, Kramer PM, Lubet RA, et al. Chemoprevention of benzo(a)pyrene-induced lung tumors in mice by the farnesyltransferase inhibitor R115777. Clin Cancer Res. 2003; 9 (5): 1927-1930.
170. Mathe G, Gouveia J, Hercend T, et al. Correlation between precancerous bronchial metaplasia and cigarette consumption, and preliminary results of retinoid treatment. Cancer Detect Prev. 1982; 5 (4): 461-466.
171. Arnold AM, Browman GP, Levine MN, et al. The effect of the synthetic retinoid etretinate on sputum cytology: results from a randomised trial. Br J Cancer. 1992; 65 (5): 737-743.
172. Lee JS, Lippman SM, Benner SE, et al. Randomized placebocontrolled trial of isotretinoin in chemoprevention of bronchial squamous metaplasia. J Clin Oncol. 1994; 12(5): 937-945.
173. Kurie JM, Lee JS, Khuri FR, et al. N-(4-hydroxyphenyl) retinamide in the chemoprevention of squamous metaplasia and dysplasia of the bronchial epithelium. Clin Cancer Res. 2000; 6 (8): 2973-2979.
174. Heimburger DC, Alexander CB, Birch R, Butterworth CE Jr, Bailey WC, Krumdieck CL. Improvement in bronchial squamous metaplasia in smokers treated with folate and vitamin B12. Report of a preliminary randomized, double-blind intervention trial. JAMA. 1988; 259 (10): 1525-1530.
175. Leone FT, Evers-Casey S, Toll BA, Vachani A. Treatment of tobacco use in lung cancer: diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2013; 143 (5)(suppl): e61S-e77S.