Associations between sedation, delirium and posttraumatic stress disorder and their impact on quality of life and memories following discharge from an intensive care unit

Danish Medical Journal

Volumn 60, Issue 4, 2013, Pages

  Svenningsen, Helle ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MIDAZOLAM; PROPOFOL; HYPNOTIC SEDATIVE AGENT;

AGE; ANESTHESIA LEVEL; ANXIETY; ARTICLE; BARTHEL INDEX; DELIRIUM; DEPRESSION; DEPRESSION INVENTORY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; GENDER; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; LENGTH OF STAY; MEMORY; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PREVALENCE; QUALITY OF LIFE; QUESTIONNAIRE; SEDATION; SHORT FORM 36; STATE TRAIT ANXIETY INVENTORY; CHEMICALLY INDUCED; COMPLICATION; DEEP SEDATION; INTENSIVE CARE; PSYCHOLOGY; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; CHEMICALLY INDUCED DISORDER; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REVIEW;

DEEP SEDATION; DELIRIUM; HUMANS; HYPNOTICS AND SEDATIVES; INTENSIVE CARE; MEMORY; QUALITY OF LIFE; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC;

EID: 84877298453     PISSN: None     EISSN: 22451919     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (211)

1. Svenningsen H. Dansk scoringsredskab til vurdering af intensiv delir. oversættelse og validering af CAM-ICU. Aarhus: Afdeling for Sygeplejevidenskab, Aarhus Universitet; 2006
2. Mistarz R, Eliott S, Whitfield A et al. Bedside nurse-patient interactions do not reliably detect delirium: An observational study. Australian Critical Care 2011;24:126-32
3. Pisani MA, Kong SYJ, Kasl SV et al. Days of Delirium Are Associated with 1-Year Mortality in an Older Intensive Care Unit Population. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009;180:1092-7
4. Young J, Murthy L, Westby M et al. Diagnosis, prevention, and management of delirium: summary of NICE guidance. BMJ 2010;341:c3704
5. Gesin G, Russell B, Lin A et al. Impact of a delirium screening tool and mulitfaceted education on nurses' knowledge of delirium and ability to evaluate it correctly. Am J Crit Care 2012;21:e1-e11
6. Devlin JW, Bhat S, Roberts RJ et al. Current Perceptions and Practices Surrounding the Recognition and Treatment of Delirium in the Intensive Care Unit: A Survey of 250 Critical Care Pharmacists from Eight States. Ann Pharmacother 2011;45:1217-29
7. Devlin JW, Fong JJ, Schumaker G et al. Use of a validated delirium assessment tool improves the ability of physicians to identify delirium in medical intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med 2007;35:2721-4
8. van Eijk MM, Kesecioglu J, Slooter AJ. Intensive care delirium monitoring and standardised treatment: a complete survey of Dutch Intensive Care Units. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing 2008;24:218-21
9. Inuoye SK, Foreman MD, Mion LC et al. Nurses' recognition of delirium and its symptoms: comparison of nurse and researcher ratings. Arch Intern Med 2001;161:2467-73
10. Swigart SE, Kishi Y, Thurber S et al. Misdiagnosed Delirium in Patient Referrals to a University-Based Hospital Psychiatry Department. Psychosomatics 2008;49:104-8
11. Morandi A, Pandharipande P, Trabucchi M et al. Understanding international differences in terminology for delirium and other types of acute brain dysfunction in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 2008
12. American Psychiatric Association.Task Force on DSM-IV. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4. ed., text rev. ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2009
13. Pandharipande P, Cotton B, Shintani A et al. Motoric subtypes of delirium in mechanically ventilated surgical and trauma intensive care unit patients. Intensive Care Med 2007;33:1726-31
14. Girard TD, Jackson JC, Pandharipande PP et al. Delirium as a predictor of long-term cognitive impairment in survivors of critical illness. Crit Care Med 2010;38:1513-20
15. Granberg Axell AI, Malmros CW, Bergbom IL et al. Intensive care unit syndrome/delirium is associated with anemia, drug therapy and duration of ventilation treatment. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2002;46:726-31
16. Lin SM, Huang CD, Liu CY et al. Risk factors for the development of early-onset delirium and the subsequent clinical outcome in mechanically ventilated patients. J Crit Care 2008;23:372-9
17. Angles EM, Robinson TN, Biffl WL et al. Risk factors for delirium after major trauma. Am J Surg 2008;196:864-9
18. Ely EW, Girard TD, Shintani AK et al. Apolipoprotein E4 polymorphism as a genetic predisposition to delirium in critically ill patients*. Crit Care Med 2006
19. van den Boogaard M, Kox M, Quinn KL et al. Biomarkers associated with delirium in critically ill patients and their relation with long-term subjective cognitive dysfunction; indications for different pathways governing delirium in inflamed and non-inflamed patients. Crit Care 2011;15:R297
20. Heymann A, Sander M, Krahne D et al. Hyperactive delirium and blood glucose control in critically ill patients. J Int Med Res 2007;35:666-77
21. Lat I, McMillian W, Taylor S et al. The impact of delirium on clinical outcomes in mechanically ventilated surgical and trauma patients. Crit Care Med 2009;37:1898-905
22. McNicoll L, Pisani MA, Zhang Y et al. Delirium in the Intensive Care Unit: Occurrence and Clinical Course in Older Patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 2003;51:591-8
23. Inouye SK, Zhang Y, Jones RN et al. Risk Factors for Delirium at Discharge: Development and Validation of a Predictive Model. Arch Intern Med 2007;167:1406-13
24. Schweickert WD, Pohlman MC, Pohlman AS et al. Early physical and occupational therapy in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2009;373:1874-82
25. Ely EW, Siegel MD, Inouye SK. Delirium in Mechanically Ventilated Patients: Validity and Reliability of the Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit (CAM-ICU). JAMA 2001;286:2703-10
26. Riekerk B, Pen EJ, Hofhuis JG et al. Limitations and practicalities of CAM-ICU implementation, a delirium scoring system, in a Dutch intensive care unit. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing 2009;25:242-9
27. Guenther U, Popp J, Koecher L et al. Validity and Reliability of the CAM-ICU Flowsheet to diagnose delirium in surgical ICU patients. J Crit Care 2010;25:144-51
28. Larsson C, Axell AG, Ersson A. Confusion assessment method for the intensive care unit (CAM-ICU): translation, retranslation and validation into Swedish intensive care settings. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2007;51:888-92
29. Gusmao-Flores D, Salluh JI, Chalhub RA et al. The Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit (CAM-ICU) and Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist (ICDSC) for the diagnosis of delirium: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical studies. Crit Care 2012;16:R115
30. McNicoll L, Pisani MA, Ely EW et al. Detection of Delirium in the Intensive Care Unit: Comparison of Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit with Confusion Assessment Method Ratings. J Am Geriatr Soc 2005;53:495-500
31. Svenningsen H. ICU-delirium assessed by CAM-ICU and validated by interview. CONNECT 2010;7:197-201
32. Svenningsen H, Tønnesen E. Sedations -og deliriumvurdering på danske intensivafdelinger. Sygeplejersken 2011;111:70-5
33. Riker RR, Robbins T, Bruce H, Fraser GL, Addor H. ICU delirium assessment tools often disagree. Critical care medicine 34[12], A7 2006 2006. Ref Type: Abstract
34. Bergeron N, Dubois MJ, Dumont M et al. Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist: evaluation of a new screening tool. Intensive Care Med 2001;27:859-64
35. Lee KU, Won WY, Lee HK et al. Amisulpride versus quetiapine for the treatment of delirium: a randomized, open prospective study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2005;20:311-4
36. Han CS, Kim YK. A double-blind trial of risperidone and haloperidol for the treatment of delirium. Psychosomatics 2004;45:297-301
37. Otter H, Martin J, Basell K et al. Validity and reliability of the DDS for severity of delirium in the ICU. Neurocrit Care 2005;2:150-8
38. McCusker J, Cole MG, Dendukuri N et al. The delirium index, a measure of the severity of delirium: new findings on reliability, validity, and responsiveness. J Am Geriatr Soc 2004;52:1744-9
39. Radtke FM, Franck M, Schneider M et al. Comparison of three scores to screen for delirium in the recovery room. Br J Anaesth 2008;101:338-43
40. Priner M, Jourdain M, Bouche G et al. Usefulness of the short IQCODE for predicting postoperative delirium in elderly patients undergoing hip and knee replacement surgery. Gerontology 2008;54:116-9
41. Neelon VJ, Champagne MT, Carlson JR et al. The NEECHAM Confusion Scale: construction, validation, and clinical testing. Nurs Res 1996;45:324-30
42. Sampson EL, Raven PR, Ndhlovu PN et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of donepezil hydrochloride (Aricept) for reducing the incidence of postoperative delirium after elective total hip replacement. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2007;22:343-9
43. Devlin JW, Fong JJ, Howard EP et al. Assessment of delirium in the intensive care unit: nursing practices and perceptions. Am J Crit Care 2008;17:555-65
44. Pun BT, Gordon SM, Peterson JF et al. Large-scale implementation of sedation and delirium monitoring in the intensive care unit: a report from two medical centers. Crit Care Med 2005;33:1199-205
45. Roberts B, Rickard CM, Rajbhandari D et al. Multicentre study of delirium in ICU patients using a simple screening tool. Australian Critical Care 2005;18:6, 8-4.
46. Vasilevskis EE, Morandi A, Boehm L et al. Delirium and Sedation Recognition Using Validated Instruments: Reliability of Bedside Intensive Care Unit Nursing Assessments from 2007 to 2010. J Am Geriatr Soc 2011;59:S249-S255
47. Guenther U, Weykam J, Andorfer U et al. Implications of objective vs subjective delirium assessment in surgical intenisve care patients. Am J Crit Care 2012;21:e12-e20
48. Laurila JV, Pitkala KH, Strandberg TE et al. Confusion assessment method in the diagnostics of delirium among aged hospital patients: would it serve better in screening than as a diagnostic instrument? Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2002;17:1112-9
49. Anonymous. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with delirium. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:1-20
50. Tropea J, Slee JA, Brand CA et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of delirium in older people in Australia. Australasian Journal on Ageing 2008;27:150-6
51. Hogan DB, Gage L, Bruto V, Brune D, Chan P, Wiens C, et al. National Guidelines for Seniors' Mental Health: The Assessment and Treatment of Delirium. CCSMH National Guidelines for Seniors' Mental Health 2006Available from: URL: http://www.ccsmh.ca/en/guidelinesUsers.cfm
52. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Delirium: diagnosis, prevention and management, NICE clinical guideline 103. NICE clinical guideline 103 2010 July 1Available from: URL: http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/13060/49909/49909.pdf
53. Hu H, Deng W, Yang H et al. Olanzapine and haloperidol for senile delirium: A randomized controlled observation. Chin J Clin Rehab 2006;10:188-90
54. Skrobik YK, Bergeron N, Dumont M et al. Olanzapine vs haloperidol: treating delirium in a critical care setting. Intensive Care Med 2004;30:444-9
55. Devlin JW, Roberts RJ, Fong JJ et al. Efficacy and safety of quetiapine in critically ill patients with delirium: a prospective, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Crit Care Med 2010;38:419-27
56. Tahir TA, Eeles E, Karapareddy V et al. A randomized controlled trial of quetiapine versus placebo in the treatment of delirium. J Psychosom Res 2010;69:485-90
57. Kim JY, Jung IK, Han C et al. Antipsychotics and dopamine transporter gene polymorphisms in delirium patients. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2005;59:183-8
58. Breitbart W, Marotta R, Platt MM et al. A double-blind trial of haloperidol, chlorpromazine, and lorazepam in the treatment of delirium in hospitalized AIDS patients. Am J Psychiaty 1996;153:231-7
59. Lonergan E, Britton AM, Luxenberg J et al. Antipsychotics for delirium. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007;CD005594
60. Bledowski J, Trutia A. A Review of Pharmacologic Management and Prevention Strategies for Delirium in the Intensive Care Unit. Psychosomatics 2012;53:203-11
61. Wøien H, Stubhaug A, Bjørk IT. Analgesia and sedation of mechanically ventilated patients -a national survey of clinical practice. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2012;56:23-9
62. Hofhuis JGM. Sleep disturbances and sedation practices in the intensive care unit -A postal survey in the Netherlands. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing 2012;28:141-9
63. Egerod I. Cultural changes in ICU sedation management. Qual Health Res 2009;19:687-96
64. Anonymous. medical-dictonary. http://www.thefreedictionarycom/2012 July 10
65. Jacobi J, Fraser GL, Coursin DB et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the sustained use of sedatives and analgesics in the critically ill adult. Crit Care Med 2002;30:119-41
66. Benbenbishty J, Adam S, Endacott R. Physical restraint use in intensive care units across Europe: The PRICE study. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing 2010;26:241-5
67. Kløft Ba. Polioepidemien i Danmark 1952-1953. En beretning om forløbet samt 7 studenters personlige erindringer om arbejdet som ventilatører. Næstved, Danmark: Medicinsk-Historisk Samling; 2003
68. Last PM, Nicholas J. The treatment of tetanus by sedation, curarization and intratracheal positive-pressure artificial respiration, with report of a case. Med J Aust 1956;43:373-5
69. Shovelton DS. Reflections on an intensive therapy unit. Br Med J 1979;1:737-8
70. Donald I. At the receiving end: a doctor's personal recollections of second -time cardiac valve replacement. Scott Med J 1976;21:49-57
71. Jones CM. Paralysis or sedation for controlled ventilation? Lancet 1980;1:312
72. Green D. Paralysis or sedation for controlled ventilation? Lancet 1980;1:715
73. Gilston A. Paralysis or sedation for controlled ventilation? Lancet 1980;315:480
74. Kress JP, Pohlman AS, O'Connor MF et al. Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1471-7
75. Strom T, Martinussen T, Toft P. A protocol of no sedation for critically ill patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a randomised trial. Lancet 2010;375:475-80
76. Kress JP, Gehlbach B, Lacy M et al. The long-term psychological effects of daily sedative interruption on critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003;168:1457-61
77. Stroem T, Stylsvig M, Toft P. Long term psychological effects of a no sedation protocol in critically ill Patients. Crit Care 2011;15:R293
78. Brattebo G, Hofoss D, Flaatten H et al. Effect of a scoring system and protocol for sedation on duration of patients' need for ventilator support in a surgical intensive care unit. Qual Saf Health Care 2004;13:203-5
79. Egerod I, Jensen MB, Herling SF et al. Effect of an analgosedation protocol for neurointensive patients: a two-phase interventional non-randomized pilot study. Crit Care 2010;14:R71
80. Girard TD, Kress JP, Fuchs BD et al. Efficacy and safety of a paired sedation and ventilator weaning protocol for mechanically ventilated patients in intensive care (Awakening and Breathing Controlled trial): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2008;371:126-34
81. Robinson BR, Mueller EW, Henson K et al. An analgesiadelirium-sedation protocol for critically ill trauma patients reduces ventilator days and hospital length of stay. J Trauma 2008;65:517-26
82. Payen JF, Chanques G, Mantz J et al. Current practices in sedation and analgesia for mechanically ventilated critically ill patients: a prospective multicenter patient-based study. Anesthesiology 2007;106:687-95
83. Ramsay MAE, Savege TM, Simpson BRJ et al. Controlled Sedation with Alphaxalone-Alphadolone. Br Med J 1974;2:656-9
84. Devlin JW, Boleski G, Mlynarek M et al. Motor Activity Assessment Scale: a valid and reliable sedation scale for use with mechanically ventilated patients in an adult surgical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 1999;27:1271-5
85. Riker RR, Picard JT, Fraser GL. Prospective evaluation of the Sedation-Agitation Scale for adult critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 1999;27:1325-9
86. Teasdale G, Jennett B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet 1974;2:81-4
87. Sessler CN, Gosnell MS, Grap MJ et al. The Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale: Validity and Reliability in Adult Intensive Care Unit Patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;166:1338-44
88. Weinbroum AA, Halpern P, Rudick V et al. Midazolam versus propofol for long-term sedation in the ICU: a randomized prospective comparison. Intensive Care Med 1997;23:1258-63
89. Mesnil M, Capdevila X, Bringuier S et al. Long-term sedation in intensive care unit: a randomized comparison between inhaled sevoflurane and intravenous propofol or midazolam. Intensive Care Med 2011;37:933-41
90. Hsiao PC, Tang YY, Liaw WJ et al. Postoperative sedation after major surgery with midazolam or propofol in the ICU: effects on amnesia and anxiety. Acta Anaesthesiol Taiwan 2006;44:93-9
91. Jakob SM, Ruokonen E, Grounds RM et al. Dexmedetomidine vs midazolam or propofol for sedation during prolonged mechanical ventilation: two randomized controlled trials. JAMA 2012;307:1151-60
92. Ruokonen E, Parviainen I, Jakob SM et al. Dexmedetomidine versus propofol/midazolam for long-term sedation during mechanical ventilation. Intensive Care Med 2009;35:282-90
93. Pandharipande PP, Pun BT, Herr DL et al. Effect of sedation with dexmedetomidine vs lorazepam on acute brain dysfunction in mechanically ventilated patients: the MENDS randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2007;298:2644-53
94. Riker RR, Shehabi Y, Bokesch PM et al. Dexmedetomidine vs midazolam for sedation of critically ill patients: a randomized trial. JAMA 2009;301:489-99
95. Reade MC, O'Sullivan K, Bates S et al. Dexmedetomidine vs. haloperidol in delirious, agitated, intubated patients: a randomised open-label trial. Crit Care 2009;13:R75
96. Dimartini A, Dew MA, Kormos R et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder caused by hallucinations and delusions experienced in delirium. Psychosomatics 2007;48:436-9
97. Kapfhammer HP, Rothenhausler HB, Krauseneck T et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder and health-related quality of life in longterm survivors of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Psychiaty 2004;161:45-52
98. Talisayon R, Buckley T, McKinley S. Acute post-traumatic stress in survivors of critical illness who were mechanically ventilated: A mixed methods study. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing 2011;27:338-46
99. Schnyder U, Moergeli H, Klaghofer R et al. Incidence and prediction of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in severely injured accident victims. Am J Psychiaty 2001;158:594-9
100. van der Schaaf M, Beelen A, Dongelmans DA et al. Functional status after intensive care: a challenge for rehabilitation professionals to improve outcome. J Rehabil Med 2009;41:360-6
101. Davydow DS, Gifford JM, Desai SV et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder in general intensive care unit survivors: a systematic review. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2008;30:421-34
102. Rosenberg R, Videbech P. [Reference programs for anxiety disorders and unipolar depression. The Danish Society of Psychiatry]. Ugeskr laeger 2008;170:1051
103. Eddleston JM, White P, Guthrie E. Survival, morbidity, and quality of life after discharge from intensive care. Crit Care Med 2000;28:2293-9
104. Treggiari MM, Romand JA, Yanez ND et al. Randomized trial of light versus deep sedation on mental health after critical illness. Crit Care Med 2009;37:2527-34
105. Scragg P, Jones A, Fauvel N. Psychological problems following ICU treatment. Anaesthesia 2001;56:9-14
106. Rattray JE, Johnston M, Wildsmith JA. Predictors of emotional outcomes of intensive care. Anaesthesia 2005;60:1085-92
107. Nelson BJ, Weinert CR, Bury CL et al. Intensive care unit drug use and subsequent quality of life in acute lung injury patients. Crit Care Med 2000;28:3626-30
108. Olsen LR, Mortensen EL, Bech P. Prevalence of major depression and stress indicators in the Danish general population. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2004;109:96-103
109. Schelling G, Stoll C, Haller M et al. Health-related quality of life and posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 1998;26:651-9
110. Jones C, Griffiths RD, Humphris G et al. Memory, delusions, and the development of acute posttraumatic stress disorderrelated symptoms after intensive care. Crit Care Med 2001;29:573-80
111. Backman CG, Orwelius L, Sjoberg F et al. Long-term effect of the ICU-diary concept on quality of life after critical illness. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2010;54:736-43
112. Orwelius L, Backman C, Fredrikson M et al. Social integration: an important factor for health-related quality of life after critical illness. Intensive Care Med 2011;37:831-8
113. Orwelius L, Nordlund A, Nordlund P et al. Pre-existing dis ease: the most important factor for health related quality of life long-term after critical illness: a prospective, longitudinal, multicentre trial. Crit Care 2010;14:R67
114. Kvale R, Ulvik A, Flaatten H. Follow-up after intensive care: a single center study. Intensive Care Med 2003;29:2149-56
115. Rothenhausler HB, Ehrentraut S, Stoll C et al. The relationship between cognitive performance and employment and health status in long-term survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome: results of an exploratory study. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2001;23:90-6
116. Graf J, Koch M, Dujardin R et al. Health-related quality of life before, 1 month after, and 9 months after intensive care in medical cardiovascular and pulmonary patients. Crit Care Med 2003;31:2163-9
117. Balas MC, Deutschman CS, Sullivan-Marx EM et al. Delirium in Older Patients in Surgical Intensive Care Units. J Nurs Scholarsh 2007;39:147-54
118. Balas MC, Happ MB, Yang W et al. Outcomes Associated With Delirium in Older Patients in Surgical ICUs. Chest 2009;135:18-25
119. Storli SL, Lind R. The meaning of follow-up in intensive care: patients' perspective. Scand J Caring Sci 2009;23:45-56
120. Egerod I, Storli SL, Akerman E. Intensive care patient diaries in Scandinavia: a comparative study of emergence and evolution. Nurs Inq 2011;18:235-46
121. Backman CG, Walther SM. Use of a personal diary written on the ICU during critical illness. Intensive Care Med 2001;27:426-9
122. Svenningsen H, Tonnesen E. Delirium incidents in three Danish intensive care units. Nurs Crit Care 2011;16:186-92
123. Le Gall Jr, Lemeshow S, Saulnier F. A new Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS II) based on a European/North American multicenter study. JAMA 1993;270:2957-63
124. Sundhedsstyrelsen. Hver eneste cigaret skader dig. http://wwwsstdk/Sundhed%20og%20forebyggelse/Tobak aspx 2012 June 13 Available from: URL: http://www.sst.dk/Sundhed%20og%20forebyggelse/Tobak.aspx
125. Sundhedsstyrelsen. Sundhedsstyrelsens 7 udmeldinger om alkohol. http://wwwsstdk/Sundhed%20og%20forebyggelse/ Alkohol aspx 2012 June 14Available from: URL: http://www.sst.dk/Sundhed%20og%20forebyggelse/Alkohol.aspx
126. Jones C, Griffiths RD, Humphris G. Disturbed memory and amnesia related to intensive care. Memory 2000;8:79-94
127. Jones C, Humphris G, Griffiths RD. Preliminary validation of the ICUM tool: a tool for assessing memory of the intensive care experience. Clin Intensive Care 2000;11:251-5
128. Mollica RF, Caspi-Yavin Y, Bollini P et al. The Harvard Trauma Questionnaire. Validating a cross-cultural instrument for measuring torture, trauma, and posttraumatic stress disorder in Indochinese refugees. J Nerv Ment Dis 1992;180:111-6
129. Palic S, Elklit A. An explorative outcome study of CBT-based multidisciplinary treatment in a diverse group of refugees from a Danish treatment centre for rehabilitation of traumatized refugees. Torture 2009;19:248-70
130. Schwarz-Nielsen KH, Elklitt A. An evaluation of the mental status of rejected asylum seekers in two Danish asylum centers. Torture 2009;19:51-9
131. O'Connor M, Elklit A. Attachment styles, traumatic events, and PTSD: a cross-sectional investigation of adult attachment and trauma. Attach Hum Dev 2008;10:59-71
132. Carlsson JM, Mortensen EL, Kastrup M. Predictors of mental health and quality of life in male tortured refugees. Nord J Psychiatry 2006;60:51-7
133. Bach ME. En empirisk belysning og analyse af Emotinal Numbing som eventuel selvstændig faktor i PTSD. 6 ed. Psykologisk institut, Aarhus Universitet; 2003
134. Nemcic-Moro I, Franciskovic T, Britvic D et al. Disorder of extreme stress not otherwise specified (DESNOS) in Croatian war veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: case-control study. Croat Med J 2011;52:505-12
135. Bech P, Rasmussen NA, Olsen LR et al. The sensitivity and specificity of the Major Depression Inventory, using the Present State Examination as the index of diagnostic validity. J Affect Disord 2001;66:159-64
136. Bech P. Major Depression Inventory. www.gp-trainingnet/protocol/psychiatry/who/mdidoc 2010 June 20 [cited 2012 Jun 18];Available from: URL: (www.gptraining.net/protocol/psychiatry/who/mdi.doc)
137. Olsen LR, Mortensen EL, Bech P. Mental distress in the Danish general population. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2006;113:477-84
138. Bech P. Klinisk psykometri. 1. udgave ed. Kbh.: Munksgaard Denmark; 2011
139. Marteau TM, Bekker H. The development of a six-item shortform of the state scale of the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Br J Clin Psychol 1992;31 (Pt 3):301-6
140. Chrispin PS, Scotton H, Rogers J et al. Short Form 36 in the intensive care unit: assessment of acceptability, reliability and validity of the questionnaire. Anaesthesia 1997;52:15-23
141. Ware JE, Jr., Sherbourne CD. The MOS 36-item short-form health survey (SF-36). I. Conceptual framework and item selection. Med Care 1992;30:473-83
142. Mahoney FI, Barthel DW. Functional evaluation: The Barthels Index. Md State Med J 1965;14:61-5
143. Egerod I, Schwartz-Nielsen KH, Hansen GM et al. The extent and application of patient diaries in Danish ICUs in 2006. Nurs Crit Care 2007;12:159-67
144. Samuelson KA, Corrigan I. A nurse-led intensive care aftercare programme -development, experiences and preliminary evaluation. Nurs Crit Care 2009;14:254-63
145. International Council of Nurses. The ICN code of ethics for nurses. Geneva: ICN -International Council of Nurses; 2001
146. Kirkwood BR, Sterne JAC. Essential medical statistics. 2. edition ed. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Science; 2003
147. Samuelson KAM, Lundberg D, Fridlund B. Stressful experiences in relation to depth of sedation in mechanically ventilated patients. Nurs Crit Care 2007;12:93-104
148. Ringdal M, Plos K, Lundberg D et al. Outcome after injury: memories, health-related quality of life, anxiety, and symptoms of depression after intensive care. J Trauma 2009;66:1226-33
149. van den Boogaard M., Schoonhoven L, Evers AW et al. Delirium in critically ill patients: impact on long-term health-related quality of life and cognitive functioning. Crit Care Med 2012;40:112-8
150. Samuelson KAM, Lundberg D, Fridlund B. Memory in relation to depth of sedation in adult mechanically ventilated intensive care patients. Intensive Care Med 2006;32:660-7
151. Samuelson KA, Lundberg D, Fridlund B. Light vs. heavy sedation during mechanical ventilation after oesophagectomy--a pilot experimental study focusing on memory. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2008;52:1116-23
152. Samuelson KA, Lundberg D, Fridlund B. Stressful memories and psychological distress in adult mechanically ventilated intensive care patients -a 2-month follow-up study. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2007;51:671-8
153. Ringdal M, Plos K, Ortenwall P et al. Memories and healthrelated quality of life after intensive care: a follow-up study. Crit Care Med 2010;38:38-44
154. Zetterlund P, Plos K, Bergbom I et al. Memories from intensive care unit persist for several years -A longitudinal prospective multi-centre study. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing 2012;28:159-67
155. Angus DC, Carlet J. Surviving intensive care: a report from the 2002 Brussels Roundtable. Intensive Care Med 2003;29:368-77
156. Jones C, Skirrow P, Griffiths RD et al. Rehabilitation after critical illness: a randomized, controlled trial. Crit Care Med 2003;31:2456-61
157. Khoudri I, li Zeggwagh A, Abidi K et al. Measurement properties of the short form 36 and health-related quality of life after intensive care in Morocco. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2007;51:189-97
158. Krahenbuhl ES, Immer FF, Stalder M et al. Temporary neurological dysfunction after surgery of the thoracic aorta: a predictor of poor outcome and impaired quality of life. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2008;33:1025-9
159. Orwelius L, Bergkvist M, Nordlund A et al. Physical effects of trauma and the psychological consequences of preexisting diseases account for a significant portion of the health-related quality of life patterns of former trauma patients. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2012;72:504-12
160. Nouwen MJ, Klijn FAM, van den Broek BTA et al. Emotional consequences of intensive care unit delirium and delusional memories after intensive care unit admission: A systematic review. J Crit Care 2012;27:199-211
161. Roberts BL, Rickard CM, Rajbhandari D et al. Patients' dreams in ICU: recall at two years post discharge and comparison to delirium status during ICU admission. A multicentre cohort study. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing 2006;22:264-73
162. Breitbart W, Gibson C, Tremblay A. The delirium experience: delirium recall and delirium-related distress in hospitalized patients with cancer, their spouses/caregivers, and their nurses. Psychosomatics 2002;43:183-94
163. Tomasi CD, Grandi C, Salluh J et al. Comparison of CAM-ICU and ICDSC for the detection of delirium in critically ill patients focusing on relevant clinical outcomes. J Crit Care 2012;27:212-7
164. Plaschke K, von HR, Scholz M et al. Comparison of the confusion assessment method for the intensive care unit (CAM-ICU) with the Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist (ICDSC) for delirium in critical care patients gives high agreement rate(s). Intensive Care Med 2008;34:431-6
165. Afonso A, Scurlock C, Reich D et al. Predictive Model for Postoperative Delirium in Cardiac Surgical Patients. Semin Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2010;14:212-7
166. Awissi DK, Bégin C, Moisan J et al. I-SAVE Study: Impact of Sedation, Analgesia, and Delirium Protocols Evaluated in the Intensive Care Unit: An Economic Evaluation. Ann Pharmacother 2012;46:21-8
167. Dubois MJ, Bergeron N, Dumont M et al. Delirium in an intensive care unit: a study of risk factors. Intensive Care Med 2001;27:1297-304
168. Ely EW, Gautam S, Margolin R et al. The impact of delirium in the intensive care unit on hospital length of stay. Intensive Care Med 2001;27:1892-900
169. Ely EW, Margolin R, Francis J et al. Evaluation of delirium in critically ill patients: Validation of the Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit (CAM-ICU). Crit Care Med 2001;29:1370-9
170. Ely EW, Shintani A, Truman B et al. Delirium as a predictor of mortality in mechanically ventilated patients in the intensive care unit. JAMA 2004;291:1753-62
171. Heymann A, Radtke F, Schiemann A et al. Delayed treatment of delirium increases mortality rate in intensive care unit patients. J Int Med Res 2010;38:1584-95
172. Jones C, Griffiths RD, Slater T et al. Significant cognitive dysfunction in non-delirious patients identified during and persisting following critical illness. Intensive Care Med 2006;32:923-6
173. Koebrugge B, Koek HL, van Wensen RJ et al. Delirium after abdominal surgery at a surgical ward with a high standard of delirium care: incidence, risk factors and outcomes. Dig Surg 2009;26:63-8
174. Micek ST, Anand NJ, Laible BR et al. Delirium as detected by the CAM-ICU predict restraint use among mechanically ventilated medical patients. Crit Care Med 2005;33:1260-5
175. Morandi A, Gunther ML, Pandharipande PP et al. Insulin-like growth factor-1 and delirium in critically ill mechanically ventilated patients: a preliminary investigation. Int Psychogeriatr 2011;23:1175-81
176. Ouimet S, Riker R, Bergeron N et al. Subsyndromal delirium in the ICU: evidence for a disease spectrum. Intensive Care Med 2007;33:1007-13
177. Ouimet S, Kavanagh BP, Gottfried SB et al. Incidence, risk factors and consequences of ICU delirium. Intensive Care Med 2007;33:66-73
178. Page VJ, Navarange S, Gama S et al. Routine delirium monitoring in a UK critical care unit. Crit Care 2009;13
179. Pandharipande P, Cotton BA, Shintani A et al. Prevalence and risk factors for development of delirium in surgical and trauma intensive care unit patients. J Trauma 2008;65:34-41
180. Peterson JF, Pun BT, Dittus RS et al. Delirium and Its Motoric Subtypes: A Study of 614 Critically Ill Patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 2006;54:479-84
181. Pisani M, Araujo K, Van Ness P et al. A research algorithm to improve detection of delirium in the intensive care unit. Crit Care 2006;10:R121
182. Roberts B. Screening for delirium in an adult intensive care unit. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing 2004;20:206-13
183. Salluh J, Soares M, Teles J et al. Delirium epidemiology in Critical Care (DECCA): an international study. Crit Care 2010;14:R210
184. Seaman JS, Schillerstrom J, Carroll D et al. Impaired oxidative metabolism precipitates delirium: a study of 101 ICU patients. Psychosomatics 2006;47:56-61
185. Shehabi Y, Riker RR, Bokesch PM et al. Delirium duration and mortality in lightly sedated, mechanically ventilated intensive care patients. Crit Care Med 2010;38:2311-8
186. Silver G, Traube C, Kearney J et al. Detecting pediatric delirium: development of a rapid observational assessment tool. Intensive Care Med 2012;38:1025-31
187. Svenningsen H, Tønnesen E. Delirium incidens på 3 danske intensivafsnit. Ugeskr laeger 2009;171:3600-4
188. Thomason JWW, Shintani A, Peterson JF et al. Intensive care unit delirium is an independent predictor of longer hospital stay: a prospective analysis of 261 non-ventilated patients. Crit Care 2005;9:R375-R381
189. van den Boogaard M, Schoonhoven L, van der Hoeven JG et al. Incidence and short-term consequences of delirium in critically ill patients: A prospective observational cohort study. Int J Nurs Stud 2012;49:775-83
190. Van Rompaey B, Elseviers M, Van Drom W et al. The effect of earplugs during the night on the onset of delirium and sleep perception: a randomized controlled trial in intensive care patients. Crit Care 2012;16:R73
191. Van RB, Schuurmans MJ, Shortridge-Baggett LM et al. A comparison of the CAM-ICU and the NEECHAM Confusion Scale in intensive care delirium assessment: an observational study in non-intubated patients. Crit Care 2008;12:R16
192. Schelling G, Richter M, Roozendaal B et al. Exposure to high stress in the intensive care unit may have negative effects on health-related quality-of-life outcomes after cardiac surgery. Crit Care Med 2003;31:1971-80
193. Stoll C, Kapfhammer HP, Rothenhausler HB et al. Sensitivity and specificity of a screening test to document traumatic experiences and to diagnose post-traumatic stress disorder in ARDS patients after intensive care treatment. Intensive Care Med 1999;25:697-704
194. Cuthbertson BH, Hull A, Strachan M et al. Post-traumatic stress disorder after critical illness requiring general intensive care. Intensive Care Med 2004;30:450-5
195. Girard TD, Shintani AK, Jackson JC et al. Risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms following critical illness requiring mechanical ventilation: a prospective cohort study. Crit Care 2007;11:R28
196. Karlsson V, Forsberg A. Health is yearning -Experiences of being conscious during ventilator treatment in a critical care unit. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing 2008;24:41-50
197. Russell S. An exploratory study of patients' perceptions, memories and experiences of an intensive care unit. J Adv Nurs 1999;29:783-91
198. Storli S, Lindseth A, Asplund K. Being somewhere else -delusion or relevant experience? A phenomenological investigation into the meaning of lived experience from being in intenisve care. Int J Qual Stud Health Well-being 2007;2:144-59
199. Storli SL, Lindseth A, Asplund K. A journey in quest of meaning: a hermeneutic-phenomenological study on living with memories from intensive care. Nurs Crit Care 2008;13:86-96
200. Karlsson V, Bergbom I, Forsberg A. The lived experiences of adult intensive care patients who were conscious during mechanical ventilation: A phenomenological-hermeneutic study. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing 2012;28:6-15
201. Lof L, Berggren L, Ahlstrom G. Severely ill ICU patients recall of factual events and unreal experiences of hospital admission and ICU stay--3 and 12 months after discharge. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing 2006;22:154-66
202. Foa EB, Stein DJ, McFarlane AC. Symptomatology and psychopathology of mental health problems after disaster. J Clin Psychiatry 2006;67 Suppl 2:15-25
203. Van Rompaey B., Schuurmans MJ, Shortridge-Baggett LM et al. Long term outcome after delirium in the intensive care unit. J Clin Nurs 2009;18:3349-57
204. Detroyer E, Dobbels F, Verfaillie E et al. Is preoperative anxiety and depression associated with onset of delirium after cardiac surgery in older patients? A prospective cohort study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2008;56:2278-84
205. Leslie DL, Inouye SK. The Impotance of Delirium: Economic and Societal Costs. J Am Geriatr Soc 2011;59:S241-S243
206. Jenabzadeh N, Chlan L. Pulmonary Care. A Nurse's Experience Being Intubated and Receiving Mechanical Ventilation. Crit Care Nurse 2011;31:51-4
207. Olausson S, Ekebergh M, Lindahl B. The ICU patient room: Views and meanings as experienced by the next of kin: A phenomenological hermeneutical study. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing 2012;28:176-84
208. Richardson A, Allsop M, Coghill E et al. Earplugs and eye masks: do they improve critical care patients' sleep? Nurs Crit Care 2007;12:278-86
209. Jones C, Dawson D. Eye masks and earplugs improve patient's perception of sleep. Nurs Crit Care 2012;17:247-54
210. McDowell JA, Mion LC, Lydon TJ et al. A nonpharmacologic sleep protocol for hospitalized older patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 1998;46:700-5
211. Duppils GS, Wikblad K. Cognitive function and health-related quality of life after delirium in connection with hip surgery: a sixmonth follow-up. Orthopaedic Nursing 2004;23:195-203.