Carbon nanostructures in lithium ion batteries: Past, present, and future

Critical Reviews in Solid State and Materials Sciences

Volumn 38, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 128-166

  Lahiri, Indranil ^a   Choi, Wonbong ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS   (United States)

^b Hanyang University   (South Korea)

Author keywords

carbon nanotube; core shell structure; electrochemical properties; fullerene; graphene; porous structure

Indexed keywords

CARBON NANOSTRUCTURES; CORE SHELL STRUCTURE; HIGH CONDUCTIVITY; LI-ION INSERTION; LITHIUM-ION BATTERY; NANO-CARBON MATERIAL; POROUS STRUCTURES; POSSIBLE FUTURES;

CARBON NANOTUBES; ELECTROCHEMICAL PROPERTIES; FULLERENES; GRAPHENE; GRAPHITE; LITHIUM; NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS;

LITHIUM BATTERIES;

EID: 84876239265     PISSN: 10408436     EISSN: 15476561     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10408436.2012.729765     Document Type: Article

References (206)

1. M. Z. Jacobson, Review of solutions to global warming, air pollution, and energy security, Energy Environ. Sci., 2, 148 (2009
2. Committee on Advanced Materials for Our Energy Future, Advanced Materials For Our Energy Future. TMS Energy. [Online] May 31, 2010. [Cited: January 23, 2012.] http://energy.tms.org/ docs/pdfs/Advanced Materials For Our Energy Future.pdf
3. Energy materials blue ribbon panel, Linking transformational materials and processing for an energy-efficient and low-carbon economy: Creating the vision and accelerating realization. TMS Energy. [Online] September 6, 2010. [Cited: Jnauary 23, 2012.] http://energy.tms.org/docs/pdfs/VisionReport2010.pdf
4. J.-M. Tarascon and M. Armand, Issues and challenges facing rechargeable lithium batteries, Nature, 414, 359 (2001
5. M. Armand and J.-M. Tarascon, Building better batteries, Nature, 451, 652 (2008
6. M. King, Advanced rechargeable battery market: Emerging technologies and trends worldwide. Nanotechnology Now. [Online] August 3, 2009. [Cited: January 21, 2012.] http://www.nanotechnow. com/news.cgi?story id=34106.
7. C. Cho,Koreans firms set to lead rechargeable batterymarket. The Korea Hearald. [Online] July 26, 2010. [Cited: January 21, 2012.] http://www. koreaherald.com/business/Detail.jsp?newsMLId= 20100726000900.
8. S. W. Lee, B. M. Gallant, H. R. Byon, P. T. Hammond, and Y. Shao-Horn, Nanostructured carbon-based electrodes: Brdging the gap between thin-film lithium-ion batteries and electrochemical capacitors, Ener. Environ. Sci., 4, 1972 (2011
9. M. Rosenberg and E. Garcia. Known lithium deposits can cover electric car boom. Reuters. [Online] February 11, 2010. [Cited: April 11, 2012.] http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/02/11/uslithium- latam- idUSTRE61A5AY20100211.
10. I. Lahiri, S. Das, C. Kang, and W. Choi, Application of carbon nanostructures - energy to electronics, JOM, 63, 70 (2011
11. B. Scrosati and J. Garche, Lithium batteries: Status, prospects and future, J. Power Sour., 195, 2419 (2010
12. B. Scrosati, Recent advances in lithium ion battery materials, Electrochimica Acta, 45, 2461 (2000
13. M. Wakihara, Recent advances in lithium ion batteries, Mater. Sci. Eng. R, R33, 109 (2001
14. S. Panero, B. Scrosati, M. Wachtler, and F. Croce, Nanotechnology for the progress of lithium batteries R&D, J. Power Sour., 129, 90 (2004
15. E. Stura and C. Nicolini, New nanomaterials for light weight lithium batteries, Anal. Chimica Acta, 568, 57 (2006
16. C. Jiang, E. Hosono, and H. Zhou, Nanomaterials for Li-ion batteries, Nano Today, 1, 28 (2006
17. T. Ohzuku and R. J. Brodd, An overview of positive-electrode materials for advanced lithium-ion batteries, J. Power Sour., 174, 449 (2007
18. J. W. Fergus, Recent developments in cathode materials for lithium ion batteries, J. Power Sour., 195, 939 (2010
19. H.-K. Song, K. T. Lee, M. G. Kim, L. F. Nazar, and J. Cho, Recent progress in nanostructured cathode materials for lithium secondary batteries, Adv. Funct. Mater., 20, 3818 (2010
20. A. S. Arico, P. Bruce, B. Scrosati, J.-M. Tarascon, and W. V. Schalkwijk, Nanostructured materials for advanced energy conversion and storage devices, Nat. Mater., 4, 366 (2005
21. K. Kinoshita and K. Zaghib, Negative electrodes for Li-ion batteries, J. Power Sour., 110, 416 (2002
22. J. L. Tirado, Inorganic materials for the negative electrode of lithium-ion batteries: State-of-the-art and future prospects, Mater. Sci. Eng. R, 40, 103 (2003
23. S. Flandrois and B. Simon, Carbon materials for lithium-ion rechargeable batteries, Carbon, 37, 165 (1999
24. M. Endo, C. Kim, K. Nishimura, T. Fujino, and K.Miyashita, Recent development of carbon materials for Li ion batteries, Carbon, 38, 183 (2000
25. N. A. Kashkhedikar and J. Maier, Lithium storage in carbon nanostructures, Adv. Mater., 21, 2664 (2009
26. H. Ikeda, T. Saito, and H. Tamura, in Proc. Manganese Dioxide Symp. Vol. 1, Kozawa A. and Brodd, R. H., Eds., IC Sample Office, Cleveland, OH, (1975
27. F. G.Will, Hermetically sealed secondary battery with lanthanum nickel anode, U.S. Patent 3874958 (1975).
28. D. W. Murphy, F. J. DiSalvo, J. N. Carides, and J. V. Waszczak, Topochemical reactions of rutile related structures with lithium, Mat. Res. Bull., 13, 1395 (1978
29. M. Lazzari and B. Scrosati, A cyclable lithium organic electrolyte cell based on two intercalation electrodes, J. Electrochem. Soc., 127, 773 (1980
30. P. G. Bruce, B. Scrosati, and J.-M. Tarascon, Nanomaterials for rechargeable lithium batteries, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 47, 2930 (2008
31. T. Brousse, D. Defives, L. Pasquereau, S. M. Lee, U. Herterich, and D. M. Schleich, Metal oxide anodes for Li-ion batteries, Ionics, 3, 332 (1997
32. D. Larcher, S. Beattie, M. Morcrette, K. Edstrom, J. C. Jumas, and J.-M. Tarascon, Recent findings and prospects in the field of pure metals as negative electrodes for Li-ion batteries, J. Mater. Chem., 17, 3759 (2007
33. M.Winter, J. O. Besenhard,M. E. Spahr, and P. Novak, Insertion electrode materials for rechargeable lithium batteries, Adv. Mater., 10, 725 (1998
34. C. K. Chan, H. Peng, G. Liu, K. McIlwrath, X. F. Zhang, R. A. Huggins, and Y. Cui, High-performance lithium battery anodes using silicon nanowires, Nat. Nanotechol., 3, 32 (2008
35. C. K. Chan, X. F. Zhang, and Y. Cui, High capacity Li ion battery anodes using Ge nanowires, Nano Lett., 8, 307 (2008
36. K. T. Lee and J. Cho, Roles of nanosize in lithium reactive nanomaterials for lithium ion batteries, Nano Today, 6, 28 (2011
37. Y. Wang, H. Li, P. He, E. Hosono, and H. Zhou, Nano active materials for lithium-ion batteries, Nanoscale, 2, 1294 (2010
38. A. S. Arico, P. Bruce, B. Scrosati, J.-M. Tarascon, and W. Van Schalkwijc, Nanostructured materials for advanced energy conversion and storage devices, Nat. Mater., 4, 366 (2005
39. F. Jiao and P. G. Bruce, Mesoporous crystalline β-MnO2 - a reversible positive electrode for rechargeable lithium batteries, Adv. Mater., 19, 657 (2007
40. P. Balaya, A. J. Bhattacharyya, J. Jamnik, Y. F. Zhukovskii, E. A. Kotomin, and J. Maier, Nano-ionics in the context of lithium batteries, J. Power Sour., 159, 171 (2006
41. J. Maier, Nanoionics: Ion transport and electrochemical storage in confined systems, Nat. Mater., 4, 805 (2005
42. N. Meethong, H.-Y. S. Huang, W. C. Carter, and Y.-M. Chiang, Size-dependent lithium miscibility gap in nanoscale Li1xFePO4, Electrochem. Soild-State Lett., 10, A134 (2007
43. G. Kobayashi, S.-I. Nishimura, M.-S. Park, R. Kanno, M. Yashima, T. Ida, and A. Yamada, Isolation of solid solution phases in size-controlled LixFePO4 at room temperature, Adv. Func. Mater., 19, 395 (2009
44. M. S. Dresselhaus G. Dresselhaus, and P. C. Eklund, Science of Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes, Academic Press, San Diego (1996
45. R. O. Loufty and S. Katagiri, Fullerene materials for lithium-ion battery applications, in Perspectives in Fullerene Nanotechnology, Part VII, Osawa, E., Eds., Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 357 (2002
46. S.-I. Kawabe, T. Kawai, R.-I. Sugimoto, E. Yagasaki, and K. Yoshino, Electrochemical properties of fullerene derivative polymers as electrode materials, Jap. J. Appl. Phys. Part 2 Lett., 36, L1055 (1997
47. A. A. Arie and J. K. Lee, Fullerene film as a coating material for silicon thick film anodes for lithium ion batteries, Mater. Sci. Technol. Conf. Exhib. 1, 294 (2009
48. A. A. Arie and J. K. Lee, A study of Li-ion diffusion kinetics in the fullerene-coated Si anodes of Lithium ion batteries, Phys. Scr., T139, 014013 (2010
49. A. A. Arie and J. K. Lee, Electrochemical properties of fullerene coated silicon thick film for anode material of lithium secondary batteries, ECS Trans., 25, 111 (2010
50. A. A. Arie, O. M. Vovk, J. O. Song, B. W. Cho, and J. K. Lee, Carbon film covering originated from fullerene C60 on the surface of lithium metal anode for lithium secondary batteries, J. Electroceram., 23, 248 (2009
51. A. A. Arie, W. Chang, and J. K. Lee, Effect of fullerene coating on silicon thin film anodes for lithium rechargeable batteries, J. Solid State Electrochem., 14, 51 (2010
52. A. A. Arie, O.M. Vovk, and J. K. Lee, sputtering, Surface-coated silicon anodes with amorphous carbon film prepared by fullerene C60, J. Electrochem. Soc., 157, A660 (2010
53. G. Maurin, Ch. Bousquet, F. Henn, P. Bernier, R. Almairac, and B. Simon, Electrochemical intercalation of lithium into multiwall carbon nanotubes, Chem. Phys. Lett., 312, 14 (1999
54. F. Beguin, K. Metenier, R. Pellenq, S. Bonnamy, and E. Frackowiak, Lithium insertion in carbon nanotubes, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 340, 547 (2000
55. Z.-H. Yang and H.-Q. Wu, Electrochemical intercalation of lithium into raw carbon nanotubes, Mater. Chem. Phys., 71, 7 (2001
56. E. Frackowiak and F. Beguin, Electrochemical storage of energy in carbon nanotunes and nanostructured carbons, Carbon, 40, 1775 (2002
57. H.-C. Shin, M. Liu, B. Sadanadan, and A. M. Rao, Electrochemical insertion of lithium into multi-walled carbon nanotubes prepared by catalytic decomposition, J.Power Sour., 112, 216 (2002
58. W. X. Chen, J. Y. Lee, and Z. Liu, Electrochemical Lithiation and de-lithiation of carbon nanotube-Sn2Sb nanocomposites, Electrochem. Comm., 4, 260 (2002
59. W. X. Chen, J. Y. Lee, and Z. Liu, The nanocomposites of carbon nanotube with Sb and SnSb0.5 as Li-ion battery anodes, Carbon, 41, 959 (2003
60. Z. P. Guo, Z.W. Zhao, H. K. Liu, and S. X. Dou, Electrochemical lithiation and de-lithiation of MWNT-Sn/SnNi nanocomposites, Carbon, 43, 1392 (2005
61. M. S. Park, S. A. Needham, G.-X.Wang, Y.-M. Kang, J.-S. Park, S.-X. Dou, and H.-K. Liu, Nanostructured SnSb/carbon nanotube composites synthesized by reductive precipitation for lithium-ion batteries, Chem. Mater., 19, 2406 (2007
62. Y. NuLi, J. Yang, andM. Jiang, Synthesis and characterization of Sb/CNT and Bi/CNT composites as anode materials for lithiumion batteries, Mater. Lett., 62, 2092 (2008
63. Y. Zhang, X. G. Zhang, H. L. Zhang, Z. G. Zhao, F. Li, C. Liu, and H. M. Cheng, Composite anode material of silicon/ graphite/carbon nanotubes for Li-ion batteries, Electrochimica Acta, 51, 4994 (2006
64. J.Y. Eom, J.W. Park,H. S.Kwon, and S.Rajendran, Electrochemical insertion of lithium into multiwalled carbon nanotube/silicon composites produced by ball milling, J. Electrochem. Soc., 153, A1678 (2006)
65. J. Shu, H. Li, R. Yang, Y. Shi, X. Huang, Cage-like carbon nanotubes/ Si composite as anode material for lithium ion batteries, Electrochem. Commun., 8, 51 (2006
66. W. Wang and P. N. Kumta, Reversible high capacity nanocomposite anodes of Si/C/SWNTs for rechargeable Li-ion batteries, J. Power Sour., 172, 650-658 (2007
67. S.Y. Chew, S.H.Ng, J.Wang, P. Novak, F. Krumeich, S. L. Chou, J. Chen, and H. K. Liu, Flexible free-standing carbon nanotube films for model lithium-ion batteries, Carbon, 47, 2976-2983 (2009
68. L.-F. Cui, R. Ruffo, C. K. Chan, H. Peng, and Y. Cui, Crystalline-amorphous core-shell silicon nanowires for high capacity and high current battery electrodes, Nano Lett., 9, 491- 495 (2009
69. T. Song, J. Xia, J.-H. Lee, D. H. Lee, M.-S. Kwon, J.-M. Choi, J. Wu, S. K. Doo, H. Chang, W. I. Park, D. S. Zang, H. Kim, Y. Huang, K.-C. Hwang, J. A. Rogers, and U. Paik, Arrays of sealed silicon nanotubes as anodes for lithium ion batteries, Nano Lett., 10, 1710-1716 (2010
70. L.-F. Cui, L. Hu, J. W. Choi, and Y. Cui, Light-weight freestanding carbon nanotube-silicon films for anodes of lithium ion batteries, ACS Nano, 4, 3671-3678 (2010
71. J. Rong, C. Masarapu, J. Ni, Z. Zhang, and B. Wei, Tandem structure of porous silicon film on single-walled carbon nanotube macrofilms for lithium-ion battery applications, ACS Nano, 4, 4683-4690 (2010
72. C. Martin, O. Crosnier, R. Retoux, D. Belanger, D. M. Schleich, and T. Brousse, Chemical coupling of carbon nanotubes and silicon nanoparticles for improved negavtive electrode performance in lithium-ion batteries, Adv. Funct. Mater., 21, 3524-3530 (2011
73. W.Wang and P. N. Kumta, Nanostructured hybrid silicon/carbon nanotube heterostructures: Reversible high-capacity lithium-ion anodes, ACS Nano, 4, 2233-2241 (2010
74. C. K. Chan, R. N. Patel, M. J. O'Connell, B. A. Korgel, and Y. Cui, Solution-graon silicon nanowires for lithium-ion battery anodes, ACS Nano, 4, 1443-1450 (2010
75. J. E. Trevey, K.W. Rason, C. R. Stoldt, and S.-H. Lee, Improved performance of all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries using nanosilicon active material with multiwalled-carbon-nanotubes as a conductive additive, Electrochem. Solid-State Lett., 13, A154 (2010
76. I. Lahiri, Prospects of oxide materials in Li-ion batteries, Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull., 89, 17 (2010
77. J. Fan, T. Wang, C. Yu, B. Tu, Z. Jiang, and D. Zhao, Ordered, nanostructured tin-based pxides/carbon composite as the negative-electrode material for lithium-ion batteries, Adv. Mater., 16, 1432 (2004
78. Y. Fu, R. Ma, Y. Shu, Z. Cao, and X. Ma, Preparation and characetrization of SnO2/carbon nanotube composite for lithium ion battery applications, Mater. Lett., 63, 1946 (2009
79. G. Du, C. Zhong, P. Zhang, Z. Guo, Z. Chen, and H. Liu, Tin dioxide/ carbon nanotube composites with high uniform SnO2 loading as anode materials for lithium ion batteries, Electrochimica Acta, 55, 2582 (2010
80. H.-X. Zhang, C. Feng, Y.-C. Zhai, K.-L. Jiang, Q.-Q. Li, and S.-S. Fan, Cross-stacked carbon nanotube sheets uniformly loaded with SnO2 nanoparticles: A novel binder-free and highcapacity anode material for lithium-ion batteries, Adv. Mater., 21, 2299 (2009
81. M.-S. Wu, P.-C. J. Chiang, J.-T. Lee, and J.-C. Lin, Synthesis of manganese oxide electrodes with interconnected nanowire structure as an anode material for rechargeable lithium ion batteries, J. Phys. Chem. B, 109, 23279 (2005
82. H. Li, P. Balaya, and J.Maier, Li-storage via heterogeneous reaction in selected binary metal fluorides and oxides, J. Electrochem. Soc., 151, A1878 (2004
83. H. Xia, M. O. Lai, and L. Lu, Nanoflaky MnO2/carbon nanotube nanocomposites as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries, J. Mater. Chem., 20, 6896 (2010
84. J. Guo, Q. Liu, C. Wang, and M. R. Zachariah, Interdispersed amorphous MnOx-carbon nanocomposites with superior electrochemical performance as lithium- storage material, Adv. Func. Mater., 22, 803 (2012
85. S.-F. Zheng, J.-S.Hu, L.-S. Zhong,W.-G. Song, L.-J.Wan, andY.- G. Guo, Introducing dual functional CNT networks into CuO nanomicrospheres toward superior electrode materials for lithiumion batteries, Chem. Mater., 20, 3617 (2008
86. S.Venkatachalam,H. Zhu, C. Masarapu, K. Hung, Z. Liu, K. Suenaga, and B. Wei, In-situ formation of sandwiched structures of nanotube.CuxOy/Cu composites for lithium battery applications, ACS Nano, 3, 2177 (2009
87. C. Li, N. Sun, J. Ni, J. Wang, H. Chu, H. Zhou, M. Li, and Y. Li, Controllable preparation and properties of composite materials based on ceria nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes, J. Solid State Chem., 181, 2620 (2008
88. Q. Gao, L. Yang, X. Lu, J. Mao, Y. Zhang, Y. Wu, and Y. Tang, Synthesis, characterization and lithium-storage performance of MoO2/carbon hybrid nanowires, J. Mater. Chem., 20, 2807 (2010
89. S. Ding, J. S. Chen, and X.W. (David) Lou, One-dimensional hierarchial structures composed of novelmetal oxide nanosheets on a carbon nanotube backbon and their lithium-storage properties, Adv. Func. Mater., 21, 4120 (2011
90. S. R. Sivakkumar and D.-W. Kim, Polyaniline/carbon nanotube composite cathode for rechargeable lithium polyer batteries assembled with gel polymer electrolyte, J. Electrochem. Soc., 154, A134 (2007
91. Md. N. Hyder, S. W. Lee, F. C. Cebeci, D. J. Schmidt, Y. Shao- Horn, and P. T. Hammond, Layer-by-layer assembled polyaniline nanofiber/multiwall carbon nanotube thin film electrodes for high-power and high-energy storage applications, ACS Nano, 5, 8552 (2011
92. A. Goyal, A. L. M. Reddy, and P. M. Ajayan, Flexible carbon nanotube-Cu2O hybrid electrodes for Li-ion batteries, Small, 7, 1709 (2011
93. X. Li, F. Gittleson, M. Carmo, R. C. Sekol, and A. D. Taylor, Scalable fabrication of multifunctional freestanding carbon nanotube/ polymer composite thin films for energy conversion, ACS Nano, 6, 1347 (2012
94. V. L. Pushparaj, M. M. Shaijumon, A. Kumar, S. Murugesan, L. Ci, R. Vajtai, R. J. Lindhardt, O. Nalamasu, and P. M. Ajayan, Flexible energy storage devices based on nanocomposite paper, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. Amer., 104, 13574 (2007
95. S. S. Zhang and T. R. Jow, Study of poly(acrylonitrilemethyl methacrylate) as binder for graphite anode and LiMn2O4 cathode of Li-ion batteries, J. Power Sour., 109, 422 (2002
96. A. Guerfi, M. Kaneko, M. Petitclerc, M. Mori, and K. Zaghib, LiFePO4 water-soluble binder electrode for Li-ion batteries, J. Power Sour., 163, 1047 (2007
97. S. S. Zhang, K. Xu, and T. R. Jow, Evaluation on a water-based binder for the graphite anode of Li-ion batteries, J. Power Sour., 138, 226 (2004
98. E. P. Roth, D. H. Doughty, and J. Franklin, DSC Investigation of exothermic reactions occurring at elevated temperatures in lithium-ion anodes containing PVDF-based binders, J. Power Sour., 134, 222 (2004
99. I. Lahiri, D. Lahiri, S. Jin, A. Agarwal, and W. Choi, Carbon nanotubes: How strong is their bond with the substrate?, ACS Nano, 5, 780 (2011
100. I. Lahiri, R. Seelaboyina, J. Y. Hwang, R. Banerjee, andW. Choi, Enhanced field emission from multi-walled carbon nanotubes grown on pure copper substrate, Carbon, 48, 1531 (2010
101. I. Lahiri, S.-W. Oh, J. Y. Hwang, S. Cho, Y.-K. Sun, R. Banerjee, and W. Choi, High capacity and excellent stability of lithium ion battery using interface-controlled binder-free multiwall carbon nanotubes grown on copper, ACS Nano, 4, 3440 (2010
102. I. Lahiri, S.-M. Oh, J. Y. Hwang, C. Kang, H. Jeon, R. Banerjee, Y.-K. Sun, and W. Choi, Ultrathin alumina coated carbon nanotubes as negative electrodes for high capacity and safe Li-ion battery, J. Mater. Chem., 21, 13621 (2011
103. J. Chen, Y. Liu, A. I. Minett, C. Lynam, J. Wang, and G. G. Wallace, Flexible, aligned carbon nanotube/conducting polymer electrodes for a lithium-ion battery, Chem. Mater., 19, 3595 (2007
104. C. Masarapu, V. Subramanian, H. Zhu, amd B. Wei, Long-cycle electrochemical behavior of multiwall carbon nanotubes synthesized on stainless steel in Li ion batteries, Adv. Func. Mater., 19, 1008 (2009
105. D. T. Welna, L. Qu, B. E. Taylor, L. Dai, and M. F. Durstock, Vertically aligned carbon nanotube electrodes for lithium-ion batteries, J. Power Sour., 196, 1455 (2011
106. R. A. DiLeo, A. Castiglia, M. J. Ganter, R. E. Rogers, C. D. Cress, R. P. Raffaelle, and B. J. Landi, Enhanced capacity and rate capability of carnon nanotube based anodes with titanium contacts for lithium ion batteries, ACS Nano, 4, 6121 (2010
107. H. Zhang, G. Cao, Z. Wang, Y. Yang, Z. Shi, and Z. Gu, Carbon nanotube array anodes for ligh-rate Li-ion batteries, Electrochimica Acta, 55, 2873 (2010
108. S. W. Lee, N. Yabuuchi, B. M. Gallant, S. Chen, B.-S. Kim, P. T. Hammond, and Y. Shao-Horn, High-power lithium batteries from functionalized carbon-nanotube electrodes, Nat. Nanotech., 5, 531 (2010
109. B. J. Landi, M. J. Ganter, C. M. Schauerman, C. D. Cress, and R. P. Raffaelle, Lithium ion capacity of single wall carbon nanotube paper electrodes, J. Phys. Chem. C, 112, 7509 (2008
110. J. Zhou, H. Song, B. Fu, B. Wu, and X. Chen, Synthesis and high-rate capability of quadrangular carbon nanotubes with one open end as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries, J. Mater. Chem., 20, 2794 (2010
111. E. J. Yoo, J. Kim, E. Hosono, H.-S. Zhoi, T. Kudo, and I. Honma, Large reversible Li storage of graphene nanosheet families for use in rechargeable lithium ion batteries, Nano Lett., 8, 2277 (2008
112. T. Bhardwaj, A. Antic, B. Pavan, V. Barone, and B. D. Fahlman, Enhanced electrochemical lithium strorage by graphene nanoribbons, J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 132, 12556 (2010
113. A. L. M. Reddy, A. Srivastava, S. R. Gowda, H. Gullapalli, M. Dubey, and P. M. Ajayan, Synthesis of nitrogen-doped graphene films for lithium battery application, ACS Nano, 4, 6337 (2010
114. H.Wang, C. Zhang, Z. Liu, L.Wang, P. Han, H. Xu, K. Zhang, S. Dong, J. Yao, and G. Cui, Nitrogen-doped graphene nanosheets with excellent lithium storage properties. J. Mater. Chem., 21, 5430 (2011
115. Z.-S.Wu,W. Ren, L. Xu, F. Li, andH.-M. Cheng, Doped graphene sheets as anode materials with superhigh rate and large capacity for lithium ion batteries, ACS Nano, 5, 5463 (2011
116. Y. F. Li, Z. Zhou, and L.B.Wang, CN(x) nanotubeswith pyridinelike structures: P-type semiconductors and Li storage materials, J. Chem. Phys., 129, 104703 (2008
117. L. Tang, Y. Wang, Y. Li, H. Feng, J. Liu, and J. Li, Preparation, structure, and electrochemical properties of reduced graphene sheet films, Adv. Func. Mater., 19, 1 (2009
118. S. Yin, Y. Zhang, J. Kong, C. Zou, C. M. Li, X. Lu, J. Ma, F. Y. C. Boey, and X. Chen, Assembly of graphene sheets into hierarchial structures for high-performance energy storage, ACS Nano, 5, 3831 (2011
119. X. Zhao, C. M. Hayner, M. C. Kung, and H. H. Kung, Flexible holey graphene paper electrodes with enhanced rate capability for energy storage applications, ACS Nano, 5, 8739 (2011
120. E. Pollak, B. Geng, K.-J. Jeon, I. T. Lucas, T. J. Richardson, F. Wang, and R.Kostecki, The intercalation of Li+with single-layer and few-layer graphene, Nano Lett., 10, 3386 (2010
121. A. T. Valota, I. A. Kinloch, K. S. Novoselov, C. Casiraghi, A. Eckmann, E. W. Hill, and R. A. W. Dryfe, Electrochemical behavior of monolayer and bilayer graphene, ACS Nano, 5, 8809 (2011
122. C. Uthaisar and V. Barone, Edge effects on the characteristics of Li diffusion in graphene, Nano Lett., 10, 2838 (2010
123. Y.Kubota, N. Ozawa,H. Nakanishi, and H. Kasai,Quantum states and diffusion of lithium atom motion on a graphene, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 79, 014601 (2010
124. S.-M. Paek, E.-J. Yoo, and I. Honma, Enhanced cyclic performance and lithium storage capacity of SnO2/graphene nanoporous electrodes with three-dimensionally delaminated flexible structure, Nano Lett., 9, 72 (2009
125. L.-S. Zhang, L.-Y. Jiang, H.-J. Yan, W. D. Wang, W. Wang, W.-G. Song, Y.-G. Guo, and L-J. Wan, Mono dispersed SnO2 nanoparticles on both sides of single layer graphene sheets as anode materials in Li-ion batteries, J. Mater. Chem., 20, 5462 (2010
126. D. Wang, R. Kou, D. Choi, Z. Yang, Z. Nie, J. Li, L. V. Saraf, D. Hu, J. Zhang, G. L. Graff, J. Liu, M. A. Pope, and I. A. Aksay, Ternary self-assembly of ordered metal oxide-graphene nanocomposites for electrochemical energy storage, ACS Nano, 4, 1587 (2010
127. X. Li, X. Meeng, J. Liu, D. Geng, Y. Zhang, M. N. Banis, Y. Li, J. Yang, R. Li, X. Sun, M. Cai, and M. W. Verbrugge, Tin oxide with controlled morphology and crystallinity by atomic layer deposition onto graphene nanosheets for enhanced lithium storage, Adv. Func. Mater., 22, 1647 (2012
128. I. LAHIRI AND W. CHOI 128. C. Xu, X. Wang, L. Yang, and Y. Wu, Fabrication of a graphenecuprous oxide composite, J. Solid State Chem., 182, 2486 (2009
129. B.Wang, X.-L.Wu, C.-Y. Shu, U.-G. Guo, and C.-R.Wang, Synthesis of CuO/graphene nanocomposite as a high-performance anode material for lithium-ion batteries, J. Mater. Chem., 20, 10661 (2010
130. L. Q. Lu and Y. Wang, Sheet-like and fusiform CuO nanostructures grown on graphene by rapid microwave heating for high Li-ion storage capacities, J. Mater. Chem., 21, 17916 (2011
131. L. Ji, Z. Tan, T. R. Kuykendall, S. Aloni, S. Xun, E. Lin, V. Battaglia, and Y. Zhang, Fe3O4 nanoparticle-intergrated graphene sheets for high-performance half and full lithium ion cells, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 13, 7139 (2011
132. J. Su,M. Cao, L. Ren, and C. Hu, Fe3O4-graphene nanocomposites with improved lithium storage and magnetism properties, J. Phys. Chem. C, 115, 14469 (2011
133. X. Zhu, Y. Zhu, S. Murali, M. D. Stoller, and R. S. Ruoff, Nanostructured reduced graphene oxide/Fe2O3 composite as a highperformance anode material for lithium ion batteries, ACS Nano, 5, 3333 (2011
134. J. Zhou, H. Song, L. Ma, and X. Chen, Magnetite/graphene nanosheet composites: Interfacial interaction and its impact on the durable high-rate performance in lihtium-ion batteries, RSC Adv., 1, 782 (2011
135. D.Wang, D. Choi, J. Li, Z. Yang, Z. Nie, R. Kou, D. Hu, C.Wang, L. V. Saraf, J. Zhang, I. A. Aksay, and J. Liu, Self-assembled TiO2-graphene hybrid nanostructures for enhanced Li-ion insertion, ACS Nano, 3, 907 (2009
136. X. Rui, J. Zhu, D. Sim, C. Xu, Y. Zeng, H. H. Hng, T. M. Lim, and Q. Yan, Reduced graphene oxide supported highly porous v2O5 spheres as a high-power cathode material for lithium ion batteries, Nanoscale, 3, 4752 (2011
137. H. Wang, L.-F. Cui, Y. Yang, H. S. Casalongue, J. T. Robinson, Y. Liang, Y. Cui, and H. Dai,Mn3O4 -graphene hybrid as a highcapacity anode material for lithium ion batteries, J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 132, 13978 (2010
138. S. Q. Chen and Y. Wang, Microwave-assisted synthesis of a Co3O4-graphene sheet-on-sheet nanocomposite as a superior anode material for Li-ion batteries, J. Mater. Chem., 20, 9735 (2010
139. Z.-S.Wu,W. Ren, L.Wen, L. Gao, J. Zhao, Z. Chen, G. Zhou, F. Li, and H.-M. Cheng, Graphene anchored with Co3O4 nanoparticles as anode of lithium ion batteries with enhanced reversible capacity and cyclic performance, ACS Nano, 4, 3187 (2010
140. L. Shen, C. Yuan, H. Luo, X. Zhang, S. Yang, and X. Lu, In situ synthesis of high-loading Li4Ti5O12-graphene hybrid nanostructures for high rate lithium ion batteries, Nanoscale, 3, 572 (2011
141. Z.-S. Wu, G. Zhou, L-C. Yin, W. Ren, F. Li, and H.-M. Cheng, Grapehene/metal oxide composite electrode materials for energy storage, Nano Ener., 1, 107 (2012
142. J. Xiao, X. Wang, X.-Q. Yang, S. Xun, G. Liu, P. K. Koech, J. Liu, and J. P. Lemmon, Electrically induced high capacity displacement reaction of PEO/MoS2/graphene nanocomposites with lithium, Adv. Func. Mater., 21, 2840 (2011
143. K. Chang, W. Chen, L. Ma, H. Li, H. Li, F. Huang, Z. Xu, Q. Zhang, and J.-Y. Lee, Graphene-like MoS2/amorphous carbon composites with high capacity and excellent stability as anode materials for lithium ion batteries, J. Mater. Chem., 21, 6251 (2011
144. Y. Cao, X. Li, I.A.Aksay, J. Lemmon, Z. Nie, Z.Yang, and J. Liu, Sandwich-type functionalized graphene sheet-sulfur nanocomposite for rechargeable lithium batteries, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 13, 7660 (2011
145. F.-Y. Su, C. You, Y.-B. He, W. Lv, W. Cui, F. Jin, B. Li, Q.- H. Yang, and F. Kang, Flexible and planar graphene conductive additives for lithium-ion batteries, J. Mater. Chem., 20, 9644 (2010
146. K. Honda, M. Yoshimura, K. Kawakita, A. Fujishima, Y. Sakamoto, K. Yasui, N. Nishio, and H. Masuda, Electrochemical characterization of carbon nanotube/nanohoneycomb diamond composite electrodes for a hybrid anode of Li-ion battery and super capacitor, J. Electrochem. Soc., 151, A532 (2004
147. J. Zhang, Y.-S. Hu, J.-P. Tessonnier, G. Weinberg, J. Maier, R. Schlogl, and D. S. Su, CNFs@ CNTs: Superior carbon for electrochemical energy storage, Adv. Mater., 20, 1450-1455.
148. J. Chen, J. Z. Wang, A. I. Minett, Y. Liu, C. Lynam, H. Liu, and G. G. Wallace, Carbon nanotube network modified carbon fibre paper for Li-ion batteries, Ener. Environ. Sci., 2, 393 (2009
149. B. Guo, X. Wang, P. F. Fulvio, M. Chi, S. M. Mahurin, X.- G. Sun, and S. Dai, Soft-templated mesoporous carbon-carbon nanotube composites for high performance lithium-ion batteries, Adv. Mater., 23, 4661 (2011
150. S. Li, Y. Luo, W. Lv, W. Yu, S. Wu, P. Hou, Q. Yang, Q. Meng, C. Liu, and H.-M. Cheng, Vertically aligned carbon nanotubes grown on graphene paper as electrodes in lithium-ion batteries and dye-sensitized solar cells, Adv. Energy Mater., 1, 486 (2011
151. S. Chen, P. Chen, and Y. Wang, Carbon nanotubes grown in situ on graphene nanosheets as superior anodes for Li-ion batteries, Nanoscale, 3, 4323 (2011
152. Z.-J. Fan, J. Yan, T. Wei, G.-Q. Ning, L.-J. Zhi, J.-C. Liu, D.-X. Cao, G.-L. Wang, and F. Wei, Nanographene-constructed carbon nanofibers grown on graphene sheets by chemical vapor deposition: High-performance anode materials for lithium ion batteries, ACS Nano, 5, 2787 (2011
153. K. Wang, Z. Li, Y. Wang, H. Liu, J. Chen, J. Holmes, and H. Zhou, Carbon nanocages with nanographene shell for high-rate lithium-ion batteries, J. Mater. Chem., 20, 9748 (2010
154. Y. Zhou and Y. Wang, Sn@CNT nanostructures rooted in graphene with high and fast Li-storage capacities, ACS Nano, 5, 8108 (2011
155. S.-M. Jang, J. Miyawaki, M. Tsuji, I. Mochida, and S.-H. Yoon, The preparation of a novel Si-CNF composite as an effective anodic material for lithium-ion batteries, Carbon, 47, 3383 (2009
156. L.-F. Cui, Y. Yang, C.-M. Hsu, and Y. Cui, Carbonsilicon coreshell nanowires as high capacity electrode for lithium ion batteries, Nano Lett., 9, 3370 (2009
157. R. Huang, X. Fan, W. Shen, and J. Zhu, Carbon-based silicon nanowires array films for high-performance lithium-ion battery anodes, Appl. Phys. Lett., 95, 133119 (2009
158. Y.-H. Xu, G. P. Yin, Y. L. Ma, P. J. Zuo, and X. Q. Cheng, Nanosized core/shell silicon@carbon anode material for lihtium ion batteries with polyvinylidene fluoride as carbon source, J. Mater. Chem., 20, 3216 (2010
159. Y.-S. Hu, R. Demir-Cakan, M.-M. Titrici, J.-O. Muller, R. Schlogl, M. Antonietti, and J. Maier, Superior storage CARBON NANOSTRUCTURES IN LITHIUM ION BATTERIES 165 performance of a Si@SiOx/C nanocomposite as anode material for lithium-ion batteries, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 47, 1645 (2008
160. T. H. Hwang, Y. M. Lee, B.-S. Kong, J.-S. Seo, and J. W. Choi, Electrospun core-shell fibers for robust silicon nanoparticle-based lithium ion battery anodes, Nano Lett., 12, 802 (2012
161. H. Wu, G. Zheng, N. Liu, T. J. Carney, Y. Yang, and Y. Cui, Engineering empty space between Si nanoparticles for lithiumion battery anodes, Nano Lett., 12, 904 (2012
162. Y. Yao, K. Huo, L. Hu, N. Liu, J. J. Cha, M. T. McDowell, P. K. Chu, and Y. Cui, Highly conductive, mechanically robust and electrochemically active TiC/C nanofiber scaffold for highperformance silicon anode batteries, ACS Nano, 5, 8346 (2011
163. Y. Wang, H. C. Zeng, and J. Y. Lee, Highly reversible lithium storage in porous SnO2 nanotubes with coaxially grown carbon nanotube overlayers, Adv. Mater., 18, 645 (2006
164. G. Chen, Z. Wang, and D. Xia, One-pot synthesis of carbon nanotube@SnO2-Au coaxial nanocable for lithium-ion batteries with high rate capability, Chem. Mater., 20, 6951 (2008
165. L. B. Chen,X.M.Yin, L.Mei,C.C. Li, D. N. Lei, M. Zhang, Q. H. Li, Z. Xu, C. M. Xu, and T. H.Wang, Mesoporous SnO2@carbon core-shell nanostructures with superior electrochemical performance for lithium ion batteries, Nanotechnology, 23, 035402 (2012
166. B. Luo, B. Wang, M. Liang, J. Ning, X. Li, and L. Zhi, Reduced graphene oxide-mediated growth of uniform tin-core/carbonsheath coaxial nanocables with enhanced lithium ion storage properties, Adv. Mater., 24, 1405 (2012
167. P. Wu, N. Du, H. Zhang, J. Yu, Y. Qi, and D. Yang, Carboncoated SnO2 nanotubes: Template-engaged synthesis and their application in lithium-ion batteries, Nanoscale, 3, 746 (2011
168. A. L. M. Reddy, M. M. Shaijumon, S. R. Gowda, and P. M. Ajayan, Coaxial MnO2/carbon nanotube array electrodes for high-performance lithium batteries, Nano Lett., 9, 1002 (2009
169. F.-F. Cao, Y.-G. Guo, S.-F. Zheng, X.-L. Wu, L.-Y. Jiang, R.-R. Bi, L.-J.Wan, and J. Maier, Symbiotic coaxial nanocables: Facile synthesis and an efficient and elegant morphological solution to the lithium storage problem, Chem. Mater., 22, 1908 (2010
170. H.-X. Ji, X.-L.Wu, L.-Z. Fan, C. Krien, I. Fiering, Y.-G. Guo, Y. Mei, and O. G. Schmidt, Self-wound composite nanomembranes as electrode materials for lithium ion batteries, Adv. Mater., 22, 4591 (2010
171. M. Armand and P. Touzain, Graphite intercalation compounds as cathode materials, Mater. Sci. Eng., 31, 319 (1977
172. H.-H. Lee, C.-C. Wan, and Y.-Y. Wang, Identity and thermodynamics of lithium intercalated in graphite, J. Power Sour., 114, 285 (2003
173. V. V. Viswanathan, D. Choi, D. Wang, W. Xu, S. Towne, R. E. Williford, J.-G. Zhang, J. Liu, and Z. Yang, Effect of entropy change in lithium intercalation in cathodes and anodes on Li-ion battery thermal management, J. Power Sour., 195, 3720 (2010
174. N. Kambe, M. S. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus, S. Basu, A. R. McGhie, and J. E. Fischer, Intercalate ordering in first stage graphite-lithium, Mater. Sci. Eng., 40, 1 (1979
175. M. Zanini, S. Basu, and J. E. Fischer, Alternate synthesis and reflectivity spectrum of stage 1 lithium - graphite intercalation compound, Carbon, 16, 211 (1978
176. S. S. Kim, Y. Kadoma, H. Ikuta, Y. Uchimoto, and M. Wakihara, Electrochemical performance of natural graphite by surface modification using aluminum, Electrochem. Solid-State Lett., 4, A109 (2001
177. I. R. M. Kottegoda, Y. Kadoma, H. Ikuta, Y. Uchimoto, and M. Wakihara, High-rate-capable lithium-ion battery based on surface-modified natural graphite anode and substituted spinel cathode for hybrid electric vehicles, J. Electrochem. Soc., 152, A1595 (2005
178. I. R. M. Kottegoda, Y. Kadoma, H. Ikuta, Y. Uchimoto, and M. Wakihara, Enhancement of rate capability in graphite anode by surface modification with zirconia, Electrochem. Soild-State Lett., 5, A275 (2002
179. Y. S. Jung, A. S. Cavanagh, L. A. Riley, S.-H. Kang, A. C. Dillon, M. D. Groner, S. M. George, and S.-H. Lee, Ultrathin direct atomic layer deposition on composite electrodes for highly durable and safe Li-ion batteries, Adv. Mater., 22, 2172 (2010
180. M.-S. Park, J.-H. Kim, Y.-N. Jo, S.-H. Oh, H. Kim, and Y.-J. Kim, Incorporation of phosphorus into the surface of natural graphite anode for lithium ion batteries, J. Mater. Chem., 21, 17960 (2011
181. J. Yang, B. F. Wang, K. Wang, Y. Liu, J. Y. Xie, and Z. S. Wen, Si/C composites for high capacity lithium storage materials, Electrochem. Solid-State Lett., 6, A154 (2003
182. Il-seok Kim, G. E. Blomgren, and P. N. Kumta, Sn/C composite anodes for Li-ion batteries, Electrochem. Solid-State Lett., 7, A44 (2004
183. C. Stangl, H. Kren, F. Uhlig, and S. Koller, High capacity graphite-silicon composite anode material for lithium-ion batteries. B. Fuchsbichler, J. Power Sour., 196, 2889 (2011
184. Y. H. Lee, K. C. Pan, Y. Y. Lin, V. Subramanian, T. Prem Kumar, and G. T. K. Fey, Graphite with fullerene and filamentous carbon structures formed from ironmelt as a lithium-intercalating anode, Mater. Lett., 57, 1113 (2003
185. S.-H. Ng, J. Wang, D. Wexler, K. Konstantinov, Z.-P. Guo, and H.-K. Liu,Highly reversible lithium storage in spheroidal carboncoated silicon nanocomposites as anodes for lithium-ion batteries, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 45, 6896 (2006
186. S. Yang, X. Feng, L. Zhi, Q. Cao, J. Maier, and K. Mullen, Nanographene-constructed hollow carbon sphere and their favorable electroactivity with respect to lithium storage, Adv. Mater., 22, 838 (2010
187. H. Zhou, S. Zhu, M. Hibino, I. Honma, and M. Ichihara, Lithium storage in ordered mesoporous carbon (CMK-3) with high reversible specific energy capacity and good cycling performance, Adv. Mater., 15, 2107 (2003
188. Y.-S. Hu, P. Adelhelm, B. M. Smarsly, S. Hore, M. Antonietti, and J. Maier, Synthesis of hierarchially porous carbon monoliths with highly ordered micerostructure and their application in rechargeable lihtium batteries with high-rate capability, Adv. Func. Mater., 17, 1873 (2007
189. N. A. Kaskhedikar, G. Cui, J. Maier,V. Fedorov,V.Makotchenko, and A. Simon, Superfine expanded graphite with large capacity for lithium storage, Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem., 637, 523 (2011
190. B. Fang, M.-S. Kim, J. H. Kim, S. Lim, and J.-S. Yu, Ordered multimodal porous carbon with hierarchial nanostructure for high Li storage capacity and good performance, J. Mater. Chem., 20, 10253 (2010
191. Y. Korenblit, M. Rose, E. Kockrick, L. Borchardt, A. Kvit, S. Kaskel, and G. Yushin, High-rate electrochemical capacitors 166 I. LAHIRI AND W. CHOI based on ordered mesoporous silicon carbide-derived carbon, ACS Nano, 4, 1337 (2010
192. Y. Liang, M. G. Schwab, L. Zhi, E.Mugnaioli, U. Kolb, X. Feng, and K.Mullen, Direct access to metal or metal oxide nanicrystals integrated with one-dimensional nanoporous carbons for electrochemical energy storage, J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 132, 15030 (2010
193. Y. Yu, L. Gu, C. Wang, A. Dhanabalan, P. A. van Aken, and J. Maier, Encapsulation of Sn@carbon nanoparticles in bamboolike hollow carbon nanofibers as an anode material in lithiumbased batteries, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 48, 6485 (2009
194. Y. Yu, L. Gu, C. Zhu, P. A. van Aken, and J. Maier, Tin nanoparticles encapsulated in porous multichannel carbon microtubes: Preparation by single-nozzle electrospinning and application as anode material for high-performance Li-based batteries, J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 131, 15984 (2009
195. A. Magasinki, P. Dixon, B. Hertzberg, A. Kvit, J. Ayala, and G. Yushin, High-performance lithium-ion anodes using a hierarchial bottom-up approach, Nature Mater., 9, 353 (2010
196. J. Guo, X. Chen, and C.Wang, Carbon scaffold structured silicon anodes for lithium-ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem., 20, 5035 (2010
197. S.-L. Chou, J.-Z. Wang, D. Wexler, K. Konstantinov, C. Zhong, H.-K. Liu, and S.-X. Dou, High-surface-area aplha- Fe2O3/carbon nanocomposite: One-step synthesis and its highly reversible and enhanced high-rate lithium storage properties, J. Mater. Chem., 20, 2092 (2010
198. S. W. Oh, S.-T. Myung, S.-M. Oh, K. H. Oh, K. Amine, B. Scrosati, and Y.-K. Sun, Double carbon coating of LiFePO4 as high rate electrode for rechargeable lithium batteries, Adv. Mater., 22, 4842 (2010
199. G. Wang, H. Liu, J. Liu, S. Qiao, G. M. Lu, P. Munroe, and H. Ahn, Mesoporous LiFePO4/C nanocomposite cathode materials for jigh power lithium ion batteries with superior performance, Adv. Mater., 22, 4944 (2010
200. Y. Uno, K. Tachimori, T. Tsujikawa, and T. Hirai, Effect of carbon coating on electrochemical properties of LiCoO2/nanocarbon composites, ECS Trans., 25, 121 (2010
201. L. Zhao, Y.-S. Hu, H. Li, Z. Wang, and L. Chen, Porous Li4Ti5O12 coated with N-doped carbon from ionic liquids for Li-ion batteries, Adv. Mater., 23, 1385 (2011
202. E. Kang, Y. S. Jung, G.-H. Kim, J. Chun, U. Wiesner, A. C. Dillon, J. K. Kim, and J. Lee, Highly improved rate capability for a lithium-ion battery nano-Li4Ti3O12 negative electrode via carbon-based mesorporous uniform pores with a simple selfassembly method, Adv. Func. Mater., 21, 4349 (2011
203. Y. Gogotsi and P. Simon, True performance metrics in electrochemical energy storage, Science, 334, 917 (2011
204. R. Krishnan, T.-M. Lu, and N. Koratkar, Functionally straingraded nanoscoops for high power Li-ion battery anodes, Nano Lett., 11, 377 (2011
205. K. Evanoff, J. Khan, A. A. Balandin, A. Magasinski,W. J. Ready, T. F. Fuller, and G. Yushin, Towards ultrathick battery electrodes: Aligned carbon nanotube-enabled architecture, Adv. Mater., 24, 533 (2012
206. Arie, Arenst Andreas, Lee, Joong Kee, Structural Characteristics of Phosphorus-Doped C60 Thin Film Prepared by Radio Frequency-Plasma Assisted Thermal Evaporation Technique, Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 12, 1658-1661 (2012)