The development of effective biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease: A review

International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry

Volumn 28, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 331-340

  Henry, Mark S ^a   Passmore, Anthony P ^a   Todd, Stephen ^b   McGuinness, Bernadette ^a   Craig, David ^a   Johnston, Janet A ^a  

^a QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY BELFAST   (United Kingdom)

^b ALTNAGELVIN HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Alzheimer's disease; biomarkers; dementia; mild cognitive impairment

Indexed keywords

ADAM10 ENDOPEPTIDASE; ALPHA 1 ANTICHYMOTRYPSIN; AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN[1-42]; ATRIAL NATRIURETIC FACTOR; BETA SECRETASE 1; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CLUSTERIN; ENDOTHELIN 1; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 6; ISOPROSTANE DERIVATIVE; MALONALDEHYDE; PITTSBURGH COMPOUND B; TAU PROTEIN; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; VASCULAR CELL ADHESION MOLECULE 1;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; CEREBROSPINAL FLUID ANALYSIS; DISEASE SEVERITY; ENZYME ACTIVITY; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; HUMAN; MEDLINE; MILD COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT; NERVE CELL LESION; NERVE DEGENERATION; NEUROFIBRILLARY TANGLE; NEUROIMAGING; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; PROTEOMICS; REVIEW; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING;

EID: 84874680950     PISSN: 08856230     EISSN: 10991166     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/gps.3829     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. Akiyama H, Barger S, Barnum S, et al,. 2000. Inflammation and Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 21: 383-421.
2. Andreasen N, Hesse C, Davidsson P, et al,. 1999. Cerebrospinal fluid beta-amyloid(1-42) in Alzheimer disease: differences between early- and late-onset Alzheimer disease and stability during the course of disease. Arch Neurol 56: 673-680.
3. Ankarcrona M, Mangialasche F, Winblad B,. 2010. Rethinking Alzheimer's disease therapy: are mitochondria the key? J Alzheimers Dis 20 (Suppl 2): S579-S590.
4. Baskin F, Rosenberg RN, Iyer L, Hynan L, Cullum CM,. 2000. Platelet APP isoform ratios correlate with declining cognition in AD. Neurology 54: 1907-1909.
5. Bertram L, Tanzi RE,. 2010. Alzheimer disease: new light on an old CLU. Nat Rev Neurol 6: 11-13.
6. Blennow K, Hampel H,. 2003. CSF markers for incipient Alzheimer's disease. Lancet Neurol 2: 605-613.
7. Bloudek LM, Spackman DE, Blankenburg M, Sullivan SD,. 2011. Review and meta-analysis of biomarkers and diagnostic imaging in Alzheimer's disease. J Alzheimers Dis 26: 627-645.
8. Bobinski M, de Leon MJ, Wegiel J, et al,. 2000. The histological validation of post mortem magnetic resonance imaging-determined hippocampal volume in Alzheimer's disease. Neuroscience 95: 721-725.
9. Borroni B, Colciaghi F, Caltagirone C, et al., 2003. Platelet amyloid precursor protein abnormalities in mild cognitive impairment predict conversion to dementia of Alzheimer type: a 2-year follow-up study. Arch Neurol 60: 1740-1744.
10. Borroni B, Perani D, Broli M, et al., 2005. Pre-clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer disease combining platelet amyloid precursor protein ratio and rCBF spect analysis. J Neurol 252: 1359-1362.
11. Boyd-Kimball D, Mohmmad Abdul H, Reed T, Sultana R, Butterfield DA,. 2004. Role of phenylalanine 20 in Alzheimer's amyloid beta-peptide (1-42)-induced oxidative stress and neurotoxicity. Chem Res Toxicol 17: 1743-1749.
12. Boyd-Kimball D, Sultana R, Poon HF, et al,. 2005. Proteomic identification of proteins specifically oxidized by intracerebral injection of amyloid beta-peptide (1-42) into rat brain: implications for Alzheimer's disease. Neuroscience 132: 313-324.
13. Buerger K, Ernst A, Ewers M, et al,. 2009. Blood-based microcirculation markers in Alzheimer's disease-diagnostic value of midregional pro-atrial natriuretic peptide/C-terminal endothelin-1 precursor fragment ratio. Biol Psychiatry 65: 979-984.
14. Buerger K, Ewers M, Pirttila T, et al., 2006. CSF phosphorylated tau protein correlates with neocortical neurofibrillary pathology in Alzheimer's disease. Brain 129: 3035-3041.
15. Buerger K, Teipel SJ, Zinkowski R, et al,. 2002a. CSF tau protein phosphorylated at threonine 231 correlates with cognitive decline in MCI subjects. Neurology 59: 627-629.
16. Buerger K, Zinkowski R, Teipel SJ, et al,. 2002b. Differential diagnosis of Alzheimer disease with cerebrospinal fluid levels of tau protein phosphorylated at threonine 231. Arch Neurol 59: 1267-1272.
17. Bush AI, Martins RN, Rumble B, et al., 1990. The amyloid precursor protein of Alzheimer's disease is released by human platelets. J Biol Chem 265: 15977-15983.
18. Butterfield DA, Boyd-Kimball D,. 2005. The critical role of methionine 35 in Alzheimer's amyloid beta-peptide (1-42)-induced oxidative stress and neurotoxicity. Biochim Biophys Acta 1703: 149-156.
19. Butterfield DA, Galvan V, Lange MB, et al,. 2010. In vivo oxidative stress in brain of Alzheimer disease transgenic mice: requirement for methionine 35 in amyloid beta-peptide of APP. Free Radic Biol Med 48: 136-144.
20. Carrillo MC, Sanders CA, Katz RG,. 2009. Maximizing the Alzheimer's disease neuroimaging initiative II. Alzheimers Dement 5: 271-275.
21. Caspersen C, Wang N, Yao J, et al,. 2005. Mitochondrial Abeta: a potential focal point for neuronal metabolic dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease. FASEB J 19: 2040-2041.
22. Chen M, Inestrosa NC, Ross GS, Fernandez HL,. 1995. Platelets are the primary source of amyloid beta-peptide in human blood. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 213: 96-103.
23. Colciaghi F, Marcello E, Borroni B, et al., 2004. Platelet APP, ADAM 10 and BACE alterations in the early stages of Alzheimer disease. Neurology 62: 498-501.
24. Dickerson BC, Salat DH, Bates JF, et al,. 2004. Medial temporal lobe function and structure in mild cognitive impairment. Ann Neurol 56: 27-35.
25. Dik MG, Jonker C, Hack CE, et al,. 2005. Serum inflammatory proteins and cognitive decline in older persons. Neurology 64: 1371-1377.
26. Di Luca M, Pastorino L, Bianchetti A, et al., 1998. Differential level of platelet amyloid beta precursor protein isoforms: an early marker for Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 55: 1195-1200.
27. Du AT, Schuff N, Amend D, et al,. 2001. Magnetic resonance imaging of the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 71: 441-447.
28. Dubois B, Feldman HH, Jacova C, et al,. 2007. Research criteria for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: revising the NINCDS-ADRDA criteria. Lancet Neurol 6: 734-746.
29. Engelhart MJ, Geerlings MI, Meijer J, et al,. 2004. Inflammatory proteins in plasma and the risk of dementia: the Rotterdam study. Arch Neurol 61: 668-672.
30. Evin G, Zhu A, Holsinger RM, Masters CL, Li QX,. 2003. Proteolytic processing of the Alzheimer's disease amyloid precursor protein in brain and platelets. J Neurosci Res 74: 386-392.
31. Ewers M, Cheng X, Zhong Z, et al,. 2011. Increased CSF-BACE1 activity associated with decreased hippocampus volume in Alzheimer's disease. J Alzheimer's Dis 25: 373-381.
32. Ewers M, Mielke MM, Hampel H,. 2010. Blood-based biomarkers of microvascular pathology in Alzheimer's disease. Exp Gerontol 45: 75-79.
33. Farlow M, Ghetti B, Benson MD, et al,. 1992. Low cerebrospinal-fluid concentrations of soluble amyloid beta-protein precursor in hereditary Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 340: 453-454.
34. Formichi P, Battisti C, Radi E, Federico A,. 2006. Cerebrospinal fluid tau, A beta, and phosphorylated tau protein for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. J Cell Physiol 208: 39-46.
35. Forsberg A, Engler H, Almkvist O, et al,. 2008. PET imaging of amyloid deposition in patients with mild cognitive impairment. Neurobiol Aging 29: 1456-1465.
36. Frank R, Hargreaves R,. 2003. Clinical biomarkers in drug discovery and development. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2: 566-580.
37. Frank RA, Galasko D, Hampel H, et al,. 2003. Biological markers for therapeutic trials in Alzheimer's disease. Proceedings of the biological markers working group; NIA initiative on neuroimaging in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 24: 521-536.
38. Gorham P, Bark N, Bjorkhem I, Meaney S, Crisby M,. 2010. Platelet alpha- and beta- secretase activities are not significantly affected by dementia or mild cognitive impairment in Swedish patients. Curr Alzheimer Res 7: 134-139.
39. Grady CL, Haxby JV, Horwitz B, et al,. 1988. Longitudinal study of the early neuropsychological and cerebral metabolic changes in dementia of the Alzheimer type. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 10: 576-596.
40. Graff-Radford NR, Crook JE, Lucas J, et al,. 2007. Association of low plasma Abeta42/Abeta40 ratios with increased imminent risk for mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 64: 354-362.
41. Hampel H, Burger K, Teipel SJ, et al,. 2008. Core candidate neurochemical and imaging biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 4: 38-48.
42. Hampel H, Mitchell A, Blennow K, et al,. 2004. Core biological marker candidates of Alzheimer's disease-perspectives for diagnosis, prediction of outcome and reflection of biological activity. J Neural Transm 111: 247-272.
43. Hampel H, Shen Y, Walsh DM, et al,. 2010a. Biological markers of amyloid beta-related mechanisms in Alzheimer's disease. Exp Neurol 223: 334-346.
44. Hampel H, Burger K, Pruessner JC, et al,. 2005. Correlation of cerebrospinal fluid levels of tau protein phosphorylated at threonine 231 with rates of hippocampal atrophy in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 62: 770-773.
45. Hampel H, Frank R, Broich K, et al,. 2010b. Biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease: academic, industry and regulatory perspectives. Nat Rev Drug Discov 9: 1-18.
46. Hansson O, Zetterberg H, Buchhave P, et al,. 2006. Association between CSF biomarkers and incipient Alzheimer's disease in patients with mild cognitive impairment: a follow-up study. Lancet Neurol 5: 228-234.
47. Hardy J,. 2009. The amyloid hypothesis for Alzheimer's disease: a critical reappraisal. J Neurochem 110: 1129-1134.
48. Harold D, Abraham R, Hollingworth P, et al,. 2009. Genome-wide association study identifies variants at CLU and PICALM associated with Alzheimer's disease. Nat Genet 41: 1088-1093.
49. Herukka SK, Hallikainen M, Soininen H, Pirttila T,. 2005. CSF Abeta42 and tau or phosphorylated tau and prediction of progressive mild cognitive impairment. Neurology 64: 1294-1297.
50. Hesse C, Rosengren L, Vanmechelen E, et al,. 2000. Cerebrospinal fluid markers for Alzheimer's disease evaluated after acute ischemic stroke. J Alzheimers Dis 2: 199-206.
51. Hulstaert F, Blennow K, Ivanoiu A, et al,. 1999. Improved discrimination of AD patients using beta-amyloid(1-42) and tau levels in CSF. Neurology 52: 1555-1562.
52. Hye A, Lynham S, Thambisetty M, et al,. 2006. Proteome-based plasma biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease. Brain 129: 3042-3050.
53. Irizarry MC,. 2004. Biomarkers of Alzheimer disease in plasma. NeuroRx 1: 226-234.
54. Ivanoiu A, Sindic CJ,. 2005. Cerebrospinal fluid TAU protein and amyloid beta42 in mild cognitive impairment: prediction of progression to Alzheimer's disease and correlation with the neuropsychological examination. Neurocase 11: 32-39.
55. Jack CR Jr., Albert MS, Knopman DS, et al,. 2011. Introduction to the recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 7: 257-262.
56. Jack CR Jr., Petersen RC, Xu Y, et al,. 1998. Rate of medial temporal lobe atrophy in typical aging and Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 51: 993-999.
57. Jack CR Jr., Petersen RC, Xu Y, et al,. 2000. Rates of hippocampal atrophy correlate with change in clinical status in aging and AD. Neurology 55: 484-489.
58. Jack CR Jr., Lowe VJ, Senjem ML, et al,. 2008. 11C PiB and structural MRI provide complementary information in imaging of Alzheimer's disease and amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Brain 131: 665-680.
59. Joachim CL, Mori H, Selkoe DJ,. 1989. Amyloid beta-protein deposition in tissues other than brain in Alzheimer's disease. Nature 341: 226-230.
60. Johnston JA, Liu WW, Coulson DT, et al,. 2008. Platelet beta-secretase activity is increased in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 29: 661-668.
61. Kanemaru K, Kameda N, Yamanouchi H,. 2000. Decreased CSF amyloid beta42 and normal tau levels in dementia with Lewy bodies. Neurology 54: 1875-1876.
62. Kantarci K,. 2007. 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy in dementia. Br J Radiol 80: S146-S152.
63. Kapaki E, Kilidireas K, Paraskevas GP, Michalopoulou M, Patsouris E,. 2001. Highly increased CSF tau protein and decreased beta-amyloid (1-42) in sporadic CJD: a discrimination from Alzheimer's disease? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 71: 401-403.
64. Kramer JH, Miller BL,. 2000. Alzheimer's disease and its focal variants. Semin Neurol 20: 447-454.
65. Laakso MP, Lehtovirta M, Partanen K, Riekkinen PJ, Soininen H,. 2000. Hippocampus in Alzheimer's disease: a 3-year follow-up MRI study. Biol Psychiatry 47: 557-561.
66. Laske C, Leyhe T, Stransky E, et al,. 2011. Identification of a blood-based biomarker panel for classification of Alzheimer's disease. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 14: 1147-1155.
67. Liu WW, Todd S, Craig D, et al,. 2007. Elevated platelet beta-secretase activity in mild cognitive impairment. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 24: 464-468.
68. Maccioni RB, Munoz JP, Barbeito L,. 2001. The molecular bases of Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. Arch Med Res 32: 367-381.
69. Mangialasche F, Kivipelto M, Mecocci P, et al,. 2010. High plasma levels of vitamin E forms and reduced Alzheimer's disease risk in advanced age. J Alzheimers Dis 20: 1029-1037.
70. Mattsson N, Zetterberg H, Hansson O, et al,. 2009. CSF biomarkers and incipient Alzheimer disease in patients with mild cognitive impairment. JAMA 302: 385-393.
71. Mayeux R, Honig LS, Tang MX, et al,. 2003. Plasma A[beta]40 and A[beta]42 and Alzheimer's disease: relation to age, mortality, and risk. Neurology 61: 1185-1190.
72. McKhann G, Drachman D, Folstein M, et al,. 1984. Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's Disease. Neurology 34: 939-944.
73. Mehta PD, Pirttila T, Patrick BA, Barshatzky M, Mehta SP,. 2001. Amyloid beta protein 1-40 and 1-42 levels in matched cerebrospinal fluid and plasma from patients with Alzheimer disease. Neurosci Lett 304: 102-106.
74. Mehta PD, Pirttila T, Mehta SP, et al,. 2000. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid levels of amyloid beta proteins 1-40 and 1-42 in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 57: 100-105.
75. Miller SL, Fenstermacher E, Bates J, et al,. 2008. Hippocampal activation in adults with mild cognitive impairment predicts subsequent cognitive decline. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 79: 630-635.
76. Mitchell AJ, Shiri-Feshki M,. 2009. Rate of progression of mild cognitive impairment to dementia - meta-analysis of 41 robust inception cohort studies. Acta Psychiatr Scand 119: 252-265.
77. Modrego PJ,. 2006. Predictors of conversion to dementia of probable Alzheimer type in patients with mild cognitive impairment. Curr Alzheimer Res 3: 161-170.
78. Moffett JR, Ross B, Arun P, Madhavarao CN, Namboodiri AM,. 2007. N-Acetylaspartate in the CNS: from neurodiagnostics to neurobiology. Prog Neurobiol 81: 89-131.
79. Morris JC,. 2005. Early-stage and preclinical Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 19: 163-165.
80. Mueller SG, Weiner MW, Thal LJ, et al,. 2005. Ways toward an early diagnosis in Alzheimer's disease: the Alzheimer's disease neuroimaging initiative (ADNI). Alzheimers Dement 1: 55-56 -66.
81. Nagy Z, Jobst KA, Esiri MM, et al,. 1996. Hippocampal pathology reflects memory deficit and brain imaging measurements in Alzheimer's disease: clinicopathologic correlations using three sets of pathologic diagnostic criteria. Dementia 7: 76-81.
82. Padovani A, Borroni B, Colciaghi F, et al., 2002. Abnormalities in the pattern of platelet amyloid precursor protein forms in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 59: 71-75.
83. Panegyres PK, Rogers JM, McCarthy M, Campbell A, Wu JS,. 2009. Fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography in the differential diagnosis of early-onset dementia: a prospective, community-based study. BMC Neurol 9: 41.
84. Pennanen C, Kivipelto M, Tuomainen S, et al,. 2004. Hippocampus and entorhinal cortex in mild cognitive impairment and early AD. Neurobiol Aging 25: 303-310.
85. Perl DP,. 2010. Neuropathology of Alzheimer's disease. Mt Sinai J Med 77: 32-42.
86. Peskind ER, Li G, Shofer J, et al,. 2006. Age and apolipoprotein E*4 allele effects on cerebrospinal fluid beta-amyloid 42 in adults with normal cognition. Arch Neurol 63: 936-939.
87. Petersen RC, Trojanowski JQ,. 2009. Use of Alzheimer disease biomarkers: potentially yes for clinical trials but not yet for clinical practice. JAMA 302: 436-437.
88. Quigley H, Colloby SJ, O'Brien JT,. 2011. PET imaging of brain amyloid in dementia: a review. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 26: 991-999.
89. Ray S, Britschgi M, Herbert C, et al,. 2007. Classification and prediction of clinical Alzheimer's diagnosis based on plasma signaling proteins. Nat Med 13: 1359-1362.
90. Reddy MM, Wilson R, Wilson J, et al,. 2011. Identification of candidate IgG biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease via combinatorial library screening. Cell 144: 132-142.
91. Reddy PH,. 2009. Amyloid beta, mitochondrial structural and functional dynamics in Alzheimer's disease. Exp Neurol 218: 286-292.
92. Rosenberg RN, Baskin F, Fosmire JA, et al., 1997. Altered amyloid protein processing in platelets of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 54: 139-144.
93. Ryu JK, McLarnon JG,. 2009. A leaky blood-brain barrier, fibrinogen infiltration and microglial reactivity in inflamed Alzheimer's disease brain. J Cell Mol Med 13: 2911-2925.
94. Schmidt R, Schmidt H, Curb JD, et al,. 2002. Early inflammation and dementia: a 25-year follow-up of the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. Ann Neurol 52: 168-174.
95. Schrijvers EM, Koudstaal PJ, Hofman A, Breteler MM,. 2011. Plasma clusterin and the risk of Alzheimer disease. JAMA 305: 1322-1326.
96. Schupf N, Tang MX, Fukuyama H, et al,. 2008. Peripheral Abeta subspecies as risk biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105: 14052-14057.
97. Selkoe DJ, Podlisny MB, Joachim CL, et al,. 1988. Beta-amyloid precursor protein of Alzheimer disease occurs as 110- to 135-kilodalton membrane-associated proteins in neural and nonneural tissues. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85: 7341-7345.
98. Sjogren M, Davidsson P, Wallin A, et al,. 2002. Decreased CSF-beta-amyloid 42 in Alzheimer's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis may reflect mismetabolism of beta-amyloid induced by disparate mechanisms. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 13: 112-118.
99. Smith GS, de Leon MJ, George AE, et al,. 1992. Topography of cross-sectional and longitudinal glucose metabolic deficits in Alzheimer's disease. Pathophysiologic implications. Arch Neurol 49: 1142-1150.
100. Soares HD, Chen Y, Sabbagh M, et al,. 2009. Identifying early markers of Alzheimer's disease using quantitative multiplex proteomic immunoassay panels. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1180: 56-67.
101. Solfrizzi V, D'Introno A, Colacicco AM, et al,. 2006. Circulating biomarkers of cognitive decline and dementia. Clin Chim Acta 364: 91-112.
102. Song F, Poljak A, Smythe GA, Sachdev P,. 2009. Plasma biomarkers for mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res Rev 61: 69-80.
103. Sperling RA, Aisen PS, Beckett LA, et al,. 2011. Toward defining the preclinical stages of Alzheimer's disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 7: 280-292.
104. Strozyk D, Blennow K, White LR, Launer LJ,. 2003. CSF Abeta 42 levels correlate with amyloid-neuropathology in a population-based autopsy study. Neurology 60: 652-656.
105. Sultana R, Butterfield DA,. 2009. Oxidatively modified, mitochondria-relevant brain proteins in subjects with Alzheimer disease and mild cognitive impairment. J Bioenerg Biomembr 41: 441-446.
106. Sultana R, Mecocci P, Mangialasche F, et al,. 2011. Increased protein and lipid oxidative damage in mitochondria isolated from lymphocytes from patients with Alzheimer's disease: insights into the role of oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease and initial investigations into a potential biomarker for this dementing disorder. J Alzheimers Dis 24: 77-84.
107. Swerdlow RH, Burns JM, Khan SM,. 2010. The Alzheimer's disease mitochondrial cascade hypothesis. J Alzheimers Dis 20 (Suppl 2): S265-S279.
108. Tang BL, Kumar R,. 2008. Biomarkers of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Ann Acad Med Singapore 37: 406-410.
109. Tang K, Hynan LS, Baskin F, Rosenberg RN,. 2006. Platelet amyloid precursor protein processing: a bio-marker for Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Sci 240: 53-58.
110. Thambisetty M, Hye A, Foy C, et al,. 2008. Proteome-based identification of plasma proteins associated with hippocampal metabolism in early Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol 255: 1712-1720.
111. Thambisetty M, Simmons A, Velayudhan L, et al,. 2010. Association of plasma clusterin concentration with severity, pathology, and progression in Alzheimer disease. Arch Gen Psychiatry 67: 739-748.
112. The Ronald and Nancy Reagan Research Institute of the Alzheimer's Association and the National Institute on Aging Working Group. 1998. Consensus Report of the Working Group on molecular and biochemical markers of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 19: 109-116.
113. van Gool WA, Kuiper MA, Walstra GJ, Wolters EC, Bolhuis PA,. 1995. Concentrations of amyloid beta protein in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 37: 277-279. 10.1002/ana.410370221
114. Van Nostrand WE, Wagner SL, Shankle WR, et al,. 1992. Decreased levels of soluble amyloid beta-protein precursor in cerebrospinal fluid of live Alzheimer disease patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 2551-2555.
115. van Oijen M, Hofman A, Soares HD, Koudstaal PJ, Breteler MM,. 2006. Plasma Abeta(1-40) and Abeta(1-42) and the risk of dementia: a prospective case-cohort study. Lancet Neurol 5: 655-660.
116. Vanderstichele H, Van Kerschaver E, Hesse C, et al,. 2000. Standardization of measurement of beta-amyloid(1-42) in cerebrospinal fluid and plasma. Amyloid 7: 245-258.
117. Vignini A, Sartini D, Morganti S, et al., 2011. Platelet amyloid precursor protein isoform expression in Alzheimer's disease: evidence for peripheral marker. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 24: 529-534.
118. Weiner MW, Veitch DP, Aisen PS, et al,. 2012. The Alzheimer's disease neuroimaging initiative: a review of papers published since its inception. Alzheimers Dement 8: S1-S68.
119. Wimo A, Prince M,. 2010. World Alzheimer Report 2010. The Global Economic Impact of Dementia.
120. Winblad B, Palmer K, Kivipelto M, et al,. 2004. Mild cognitive impairment - beyond controversies, towards a consensus: report of the International Working Group on Mild Cognitive Impairment. J Intern Med 256: 240-246.
121. Yaffe K, Lindquist K, Penninx BW, et al,. 2003. Inflammatory markers and cognition in well-functioning African-American and white elders. Neurology 61: 76-80.
122. Yasojima K, Schwab C, McGeer EG, McGeer PL,. 2000. Human neurons generate C-reactive protein and amyloid P: upregulation in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res 887: 80-89.
123. Zemlan FP, Rosenberg WS, Luebbe PA, et al,. 1999. Quantification of axonal damage in traumatic brain injury: affinity purification and characterization of cerebrospinal fluid tau proteins. J Neurochem 72: 741-750.
124. Zhong Z, Ewers M, Teipel S, et al,. 2007. Levels of beta-secretase (BACE1) in cerebrospinal fluid as a predictor of risk in mild cognitive impairment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 64: 718-726.
125. Zipser BD, Johanson CE, Gonzalez L, et al,. 2007. Microvascular injury and blood-brain barrier leakage in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 28: 977-986.
126. Zlokovic BV,. 2004. Clearing amyloid through the blood-brain barrier. J Neurochem 89: 807-811.
127. Zuliani G, Cavalieri M, Galvani M, et al,. 2008. Markers of endothelial dysfunction in older subjects with late onset Alzheimer's disease or vascular dementia. J Neurol Sci 272: 164-170.