Juveniles at Risk: A Plea for Preventive Justice

Juveniles at Risk: A Plea for Preventive Justice

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 1-224

  Slobogin, Christopher ^a   Fondacaro, Mark R ^b  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY LAW SCHOOL   (United States)

^b JOHN JAY COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE   (United States)

Author keywords

Juvenile justice intervention; Juvenile justice system; Juvenile offenders; Policy approaches; Policymakers; Rehabilitation; Reintegration

Indexed keywords

EID: 84873033301     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199778355.001.0001     Document Type: Book

References (461)

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50. Slobogin, Proving the Unprovable 116.
51. See Eric Fritsch & Craig Hemmens, Juvenile Waiver in the United States 1979-1995: A Comparison and Analysis of State Waiver Statutes, Juv. & Fam. Ct. J., Summer 1995, at 17, 24-31 tbls.1, 2.
52. See Bruce J. Winick, Sex Offender Law in the 1990s: A Therapeutic Jurisprudence Analysis, 4 Psychol., Pub. Pol. & L. 505, 531 (1998).
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54. See Beth Wilbourn, Note, Waiver of Juvenile Court Jurisdiction: National Trends and the Inadequacy of the Texas Response, 23 Am. J. Crim. L. 633, 639 (1996).
55. See also Royce S. Buckingham, The Erosion of Juvenile Court Judge Discretion in the Transfer Decision Nationwide and in Oregon, 29 Willamette L. Rev. 689, 694 (1993).
56. See Lawrence Winner et al., The Transfer of Juveniles to Criminal Court: Does It Make a Difference? 43 Crime & Delinq. 557 (1997)
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58. Jeffrey A. Fagan, This Will Hurt Me More Than It Hurts You: Social and Legal Consequences of Criminalizing Delinquency, 16 Notre Dame J. Law, Ethics & Public Policy 28 (2002).
59. See also Randi Hjalmarsson, Juvenile Jails: A Path to the Straight and Narrow or to Hardened Criminality?, 52 J. L. & Economics, 779 (2009)
60. Franklin E. Zimring & Jeffry Fagan, Transfer Policy and Law Reform, in The Changing Borders of Juvenile Justice: Transfer of Adolescents to the Criminal Court 407, 410 (Franklin E. Zimring & Jeffry Fagan, eds., 2000).
61. Heilbrun et al., A National Survey, at 128-43
62. Roy G. Spece, in Preserving the Right to Treatment: A Critical Assessment and Constructive Development of Constitutional Right to Treatment Theories, 20 Ariz. L. Rev. 1, 33-46 (1978).
63. Eric S. Janus and Wayne A. Logan, Substantive Due Process and the Involuntary Confinement of Sexually Violent Predators, 35 Conn. L. Rev. 319 (2003).
64. See Christopher Slobogin, Ralph Reisner, & Arti Rai, Law & the Mental Health System: Civil and Criminal Aspects 1131-88 (5th ed. 2009)
65. Karol L. Kumpfer & Charles W. Turner, The Social Ecology Model of Adolescent Substance Abuse: Implications for Prevention, 25 Int'l J. Addictions 435 (1990-91).
66. Samuel M. Davis et al., Children in the Legal System 108 (2d ed. 1997).
67. Kirk Heilbrun, Prediction Versus Management Models Relevant to Risk Assessment: The Importance of Legal Decision-Making Context, 21 L. & Hum. Beh. 347
68. Donald A. Andrews & James Bonta, The Psychology of Criminal Conduct (4th ed., 2006).
69. Heilbrun, Prediction Versus Management Models;
70. Andrews & Bonta, The Psychology of Criminal Conduct.
71. Nancy G. Guerra et al., What Works: Best Practices with Juvenile Offenders, in Treating the Juvenile Offender 79-102 (Robert D. Hoge et al., eds., 2008).
72. Peter Henry Rossi et al., Evaluation: A Systematic Approach (7th ed. 2004).
73. See Mark R. Fondacaro & Lauren G. Fasig, Judging Juvenile Responsibility: A Social Ecological Perspective, in Handbook of Children, Culture, and Violence 355-73 (Nancy E. Dowd, Dorothy G. Singer, & Robin Fretwell Wilson, eds., 2006).
74. Christopher Slobogin & Mark Fondacaro, Rethinking Deprivations of Liberty: Possible Contributions from Therapeutic and Ecological Jurisprudence, 18 Beh. Sciences & L. 499-516 (2000).
75. See generally Rosalind E.H. Catchpole and Heather M. Gretton, The Predictive Validity of Risk Assessment with Violent Young Offenders: A 1-Year Examination of Criminal Outcome, 30 Crim. Just. & Beh. 688 (2003).
76. See generally John Monahan et al., Rethinking Risk Assessment: The MacArthur Study of Mental Disorder and Violence 163 (2001)
77. Terence P. Thornberry, Sentencing Disparities in the Juvenile Justice System, 70 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 164 (1979).
78. Delbert S. Elliot, Serious Violent Offenders: Onset, Developmental Course, and Termination, 32 Criminology 1, 19 (1994).
79. Barry Krisberg & James F. Austin, Reinventing Juvenile Justice 129-30 (1993)
80. Sandra T. Azar & Corina L. Benjet, A Cognitive Perspective on Ethnicity, Race, and Termination of Parental Rights, 18 Law & Hum. Beh. 249 (1994)
81. See Christopher Slobogin, Mark R. Fondacaro, & Jennifer Woolard, A Prevention Model of Juvenile Justice: The Promise of Kansas v. Hendricks for Children, 1999 Wis. L. Rev. 185 (1999).
82. Astrid Birgden, Therapeutic Jurisprudence and Offender Rights: A Normative Stance is Required, 78 Rev. Jur. U.P.R. 53 (2009)
83. See generally, Punishing Juveniles: Principle and Critique (Ido Weijers & Antony Duff, eds., 2002)
84. See Fondacaro et al., Administrative Law, A New Frontier
85. Elizabeth S. Scott & Laurence Steinberg, Rethinking Juvenile Justice: Adolescence Development and the Regulation of Youth Crime 261-62 (2008).
86. See David A. Harris, The Criminal Defense Lawyer in the Juvenile Justice System, 26 U. Tol. L. Rev. 751, 756-61 (1995)
87. Franklin E. Zimring, Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on Sentencing Policy Toward Young Offenders: Confronting Youth Crime (1978).
88. Terrie E. Moffitt, Natural Histories of Delinquency in Cross-National Longitudinal Research on Human Development and Criminal Behavior 3, 29 (Elmar G. M. Weitekamp & Hans-Jurgen Kerner, eds., 1994).
89. Laurence Steinberg, Adolescent Development and Juvenile Justice, 5 Ann. Rev. Clinical Psychol. 459, 466 (2009)
90. Terrie Moffitt, Adolescence-Limited and Life-Course-Persistent Antisocial Behavior: A Developmental Taxonomy, 100 Psychol. Rev. 674, 675 (1993).
91. See Mark R. Fondacaro, Toward an Ecological Jurisprudence Rooted in Concepts of Justice and Empirical Research, 69 Univ. Missouri-Kansas City L. Rev. 179, 185 (2000).
92. Lee Ross & Richard E. Nisbett, The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychol. (1991).
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96. Urie Bronfenbrenner, The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design (1979)
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98. Mark R. Fondacaro & Lauren G. Fasig, Judging Juvenile Responsibility: A Social Ecological Perspective, in Handbook of Children, Culture, and Violence 355-73 (Nancy E. Dowd, Dorothy G. Singer, & Robin Fretwell Wilson, eds., 2006).
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107. See Laurence Steinberg & Elizabeth Cauffman, Maturity of Judgment in Adolescence: Psychosocial Factors in Adolescent Decision Making, 20 Law & Hum. Beh. 249, 260 (1996).
108. Steinberg & Cauffman, A Developmental Perspective, at 397.
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116. Steinberg & Cauffman, Maturity of Judgment in Adolescence, at 255
117. Pravan Kambam & Christopher Thompson, The Development of Decision-making Capacities in Children and Adults: Psychological and Neurological Perspectives and Their Implications for Juvenile Defendants, 27 Beh. Sci. & L. 173, 175 (2009)
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126. See generally Charles Geier & Beatriz Luna, The Maturation of Incentive Processing and Cognitive Control, 93 Pharmacol. Biochem. Beh. 212 (2009);
127. American Bar Association, Juvenile Justice Center, Adolescence, Brain Development and Legal Culpability, available at www.abanet.org/crimjust/juvjus/Adolescence.pdf (2004);
128. Jay Giedd et al., Brain Development During Childhood and Adolescence: A Longitudinal MRI Study, 2 Nature Neurosci. 861, 861 (1999)
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131. See B. J. Casey, Sarah Getz, & Adriana Galvan, The Adolescent Brain, 28 Dev. Rev. 62, 70 (2008)
132. See generally Charles Geier & Beatriz Luna, The Maturation of Incentive Processing and Cognitive Control, 93 Pharmacol. Biochem. Beh. 212, 212 (2009)
133. Brian Bower, Teen Brains on Trial: The Science of Neural Development Tangles with the Juvenile Death Penalty, 165 Sciences News Online at 3-4, available at www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1200/is_19_165/ai_n6110300/pg_2?tag=artBody;col1 (2004)
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137. See Jennifer White et al., The Measurement of Impulsivity and Its Relationship to Delinquency, 103 J. Abnormal Psychol. 192, 202 (1994)
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142. Deborah Gorman-Smith et al., A Developmental-Ecological Model of the Relation of Family Functioning to Patterns of Delinquency, 16 J. Quant. Criminol. 169, 170 (2000)
143. Daniel S. Shaw & Joan I. Vondra, Infant Attachment Security and Maternal Predictors of Early Behavior Problems: A Longitudinal Study of Low-Income Families, 23 J. Abnormal Child Psychol. 335 (1995).
144. John Bowlby, A Secure Base: Clinical Implications of Attachment Theory (1988).
145. See Mark R. Fondacaro, M. Dunkle, & M.K. Pathak, Procedural Justice in Resolving Family Disputes: A Psychosocial Analysis of Individual and Family Functioning in Late Adolescence, 27 J. Youth & Adol. 101 (1998).
146. See also Shelly L. Jackson & Mark R. Fondacaro, Procedural Justice in Resolving Family Conflict: Implications for Youth Violence Prevention, 21 L. & Policy 101 (1999).
147. Michael R. Brubacher et al., Procedural Justice in Resolving Family Disputes: Implications for Childhood Bullying, 15 Psychol., Pub. Pol. & L. 149 (2009).
148. J. Stuart et al., Procedural Justice In Family Conflict Resolution and Deviant Peer Group Involvement Among Adolescents: The Mediating Influence of Peer Conflict, 37 J. Youth & Adol. 674 (2008).
149. Cathy S. Widom & Helen W. Wilson, How Victims Become Offenders, in Children as Victims, Witnesses and Offenders: Psychological Science and the Law 255 (Bette L. Bottoms, Cynthia J. Nadjowski, & Gail S. Goodman, eds., 2009)
150. Rolf Loeber et al., Child Delinquency: Early Intervention and Prevention, Child Delinquency Bulletin, 5 Juv. Justice & Delinq. Prevention 7, available at www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/186162.pdf (2003).
151. Cathy Spatz Widom, Does Violence Beget Violence? A Critical Examination of the Literature, 106 Psychol. Bull. 3, 23 (1989).
152. Anna Stewart et al., Transitions and Turning Points: Examining the Links Between Child Maltreatment and Juvenile Offending, 32 Child Abuse & Neglect 51 (2008).
153. Cathy Spatz Widom et al., An Examination of Pathways from Childhood Victimization to Violence: The Role of Early Aggression and Problematic Alcohol Use, 21 Violence & Victims 675 (2006).
154. Gayla Margolin & Elana B. Gordis, The Effects of Family and Community Violence on Children, 51 Ann. Rev. Psychol. 445, 456 (2000).
155. Veronica M. Herrera & Laura Ann McCloskey, Gender Differences in the Risk for Delinquency Among Youth Exposed to Family Violence, 25 Child Abuse & Neglect 1037, 1046 (2001).
156. Patrick H. Tolan et al., Linking Family Violence to Delinquency Across Generations, 5 Children's Services: Soc. Pol., Res., & Prac. 273 (2002).
157. Benjamin B. Lahey et al., Psychopathology in the Parents of Children with Conduct Disorder and Hyperactivity, 27 J. Am. Acad. Child & Adol. Psychiat. 163, 166-67 (1988)
158. Gerald R. Patterson et al., Predicting Risk for Early Police Arrest, 8(4) J. Quant. Criminol. 335, 351 (1992)
159. Robert J. Sampson & W. Byron Groves, Community Structure and Crime: Testing Social-Disorganization Theory, 94 Am. J. Sociol. 774, 781 (1989).
160. Brenda Bryant, The Neighborhood Walk: A Study of Sources of Support in Middle School Children from the Child's Perspective, 50 (3 Serial No. 210), Monographs Soc'y Res. Child Dev. 1(1985).
161. Albert J. Reiss, Jr. & David P. Farrington, Advancing Knowledge About Co-Offending: Results from a Prospective Longitudinal Survey of London Males, 82 J. Crim. L. & Criminol. 360, 393 (1991)
162. J. David Hawkins et al., Predictors of Youth Violence, Juvenile Justice Bulletin (2000), available at www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/179065.pdf;
163. Laura V. Scaramella et al., Evaluation of a Social Contextual Model of Delinquency: A Cross-Cultural Replication, 73 Child Dev. 175, 189 (2002)
164. Thomas J. Dishon et al., Antisocial Boys and Their Friends in Early Adolescence: Relationship Characteristics, Quality, and Interactional Process, 66 Child Dev. 139 (1995).
165. See Margo Gardner & Laurence Steinberg, Peer Influence on Risk Taking, Risk Preference and Risky Decision Making in Adolescence and Adulthood: An Experimental Study, 41(4) Dev. Psychol. 625, 632 (2005)
166. Thomas J. Berndt, Developmental Changes in Conformity to Peers and Parents, 15 Dev. Psychol. 608, 615 (1979)
167. Scott et al., Evaluating Adolescent Decision-Making, at 230;
168. Jeffrey Fagan, Contexts of Choice by Adolescents in Criminal Events, in Youth on Trial, at 371, 373.
169. See Franklin E. Zimring, Kids, Groups and Crime: Some Implications of a Well-Known Secret, 72 J. Crim. L. & Criminol. 867, 867 (1981)
170. Joan McCord & Kevin P. Conway, Patterns of Juvenile Delinquency and Co-Offending, in Advances of Criminology Theory, Volume 10: Crime and Social Organization 15 (Elin J. Waring & David Weisburd, eds., 2002).
171. Hawkins et al., Predictors of Youth Violence.
172. Berndt, Developmental Changes, at 615
173. Scaramella et al., Social-Contextual Model of Delinquency, at 189.
174. Loeber et al., Child Delinquency, at 7-8.
175. See Terrie E. Moffitt, Adolescence-Limited and Life-Course-Persistent Antisocial Behavior: A Developmental Taxonomy, 100 Psychol. Rev. 674, 687-88 (1993)
176. Devon D. Brewer et al., Preventing Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offending: A Review of Evaluations and Selected Strategies in Childhood, Adolescence, and the Community, in Sourcebook on Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders 61 (James C. Howell et al. eds., 1995);
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178. J. David Hawkins et al., A Review of Predictors of Youth Violence, in Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions 106 (Rolf Loeber & David P. Farrington, eds., 1998).
179. Todd I. Herrenkohl et al., School and Community Risk Factors and Interventions, in Child Delinquents: Development, Intervention, and Service Needs 211 (Rolf Loeber & David Farrington, eds., 2001).
180. Allison Ann Payne, A Multilevel Analysis of the Relationships among Communal School Organization, Student Bonding, and Delinquency, 45 J. Res. Crime & Delinq. 429 (2008).
181. Gary D. Gottfredson et al., School Climate Predictors of School Disorder: Results from a National Study of Delinquency Prevention in Schools, 42 J. Res. Crime & Delinq. 412 (2005);
182. Patricia H. Jenkins, School Delinquency and the School Social Bond, 34 J. Res. Crime & Delinq. 337, 340 (1997).
183. John P. Hoffmann & Mikaela J. Dufur, Family and School Capital Effects on Delinquency: Substitutes or Complements, 51 Sociol. Perspectives 29 (2008).
184. Richard Cloward & Llyod Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs (1961);
185. Clifford Shaw and Henry D. Mccay, Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas (1942).
186. Charles R. Tittle & Robert F. Meier, Specifying the SES/Delinquency Relationship by Social Characteristics of Contexts, 28 J. Res. Crime & Delinq. 430 (1991);
187. Charles R. Tittle et al., The Myth of Social Class and Criminality: An Assessment of the Empirical Evidence, 43 Am. Sociol. Rev. 643 (1978).
188. Robert J. Sampson & John H. Laub, Urban Poverty and the Family Context of Delinquency: A New Look at Structure and Process in a Classic Study, 65 Child Dev. 523 (1994).
189. Bradley R. Enter Wright et al., Reconsidering the Relationship Between SES and Delinquency: Causation but Not Correlation, 37 Criminol. 175, 188 (1999).
190. Carter Hay et al., Compounded Risk: The Implications for Delinquency of Coming from a Poor Family that Lives in a Poor Community, 36 J. Youth & Adol. 593 (2007)
191. Loeber et al., Child Delinquency, at 8;
192. Robert J. Sampson et al., Neighborhoods and Violence Crime: A Multilevel Study of Collective Efficacy, 277 Science 919, 923 (1997)
193. See generally Tama Leventhal & Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, The Neighborhoods They Live In: The Effects of Neighborhood Residence on Child and Adolescent Outcomes, 126 Psychol. Bull. 309 (2000).
194. Donald R. Lynam et al., The Interaction Between Impulsivity and Neighborhood Context on Offending: The Effects of Impulsivity Are Stronger in Poorer Neighborhoods, 109(4) J. Abnormal Psychol. 563, 570 (2000).
195. Jeffrey Fagan, Contexts of Choice by Adolescents in Criminal Events, in Youth on Trial, at 371, 375.
196. See Robert J. Sampson & John H. Laub, Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through Life 21 (1993);
197. Delbert S. Elliot et al., The Effects of Neighborhood Disadvantage on Adolescent Development, 33 J. Res. Crime & Delinq. 389, 417-18 (1997);
198. Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, Neighborhoods They Live In, at 319-20.
199. Gorman-Smith et al., A Developmental-Ecological Model, at 192
200. Beth E. Molnar et al., Effects of Neighborhood Resources on Aggressive and Delinquent Behaviors Among Urban Youths, 98 Am. J. Pub. Health 1086 (2008) (emphasis added).
201. Craig A. Anderson et al., The Influence of Media Violence on Youth, 4 Psychological Science in the Pub. Int. 81, 81 (2003).
202. Brad J. Bushman, Moderating Role of Trait Aggressiveness in the Effects of Violent Media on Aggression, 69 J. Personality & Soc. Psychol. 950, 959 (1995).
203. L. Rowell Huesmann et al., Longitudinal Relations Between Children's Exposure to TV Violence and Their Aggressive and Violent Behavior in Young Adulthood: 1977-1999, 39 Dev. Psychol. 201, 215 (2003)
204. Sampson & Laub, Crime in the Making, at 21
205. See Kirk R. Williams & Richard Hawkins, Perceptual Research on General Deterrence: A Critical Review, 20 L. & Soc'y Rev. 545, 561-66 (1986).
206. Terrie Moffitt, The New Look of Behavioural Genetics in Developmental Psychopathology: Gene-Environment Interplay in Antisocial Behaviors, 131 Psychol. Bull. 533, 535 (2005).
207. Terrie E. Moffitt, Adolescence-Limited and Life-Course-Persistent Antisocial Behavior: A Developmental Taxonomy, 100 Psychol. Rev. 674, 687-88 (1993).
208. Jeannette Taylor et al., Evidence for a Genetic Etiology of Early-Onset Delinquency, 109 J. Abnormal Psychol. 634, 638 (2000).
209. Isabela Granic & Gerald R. Patterson, Toward a Comprehensive Model of Antisocial Development: A Dynamic Systems Approach, Psychol. Rev. 101, 118 (2006).
210. Gerald Caplan, Principles of Preventive Psychiatry, 29-30 (1964)
211. Kenneth Heller & John Monahan, Psychol. & Community Change, at 120 (1977).
212. Jennifer Woolard et al., Informing Juvenile Justice Policy: Directions for Behavioral Science Research, 25 Law & Hum. Beh. 13, 15 (2010).
213. Mark W. Lipsey & Francis T. Cullen, The Effectiveness of Correctional Rehabilitation: A Review of Systematic Reviews, 3 Ann. Rev. L & Soc. Sci. 297, 302 (2008).
214. See also Richard Redding, Adult Punishment for Juvenile Offenders: Does It Reduce Crime? in Handbook, 375, at 389
215. Donna Bishop et al., The Transfer of Juveniles to Criminal Court: Does It Make a Difference? 41 Crime & Delinq. 171, 183 (1996)
216. Jeffrey Fagan, Aaron Kupchik, & Akiva Liberman, Be Careful What You Wish For: The Comparative Impacts of Juvenile versus Criminal Court Sanctions on Recidivism Among Adolescent Felony Offenders, Columbia Law School, Pub. Law Research Paper No. 03-61 (2004) (same).
217. Mark W. Lipsey, The Primary Factors that Characterize Effective Interventions with Juvenile Offenders: A Meta-Analytic Review, 4 Victims & Offenders 124 (2009).
218. Lipsey & Cullen, Effectiveness of Correctional Rehabilitation, at 302 (emphasis added).
219. Barry Holman & Jason Ziedenberg, The Dangers of Detention: The Impact of Incarcerating Youth in Detention and Other Secure Facilities, Washington, D.C.: Justice Policy Institute (2006).
220. Barry Holman & Jason Ziedenberg, The Dangers of Detention: The Impact of Incarcerating Youth in Detention and Other Secure Facilities, Washington, D.C.: Justice Policy Institute 5 (2006).
221. Richard G. Wiebush et al., Implementation of the Intensive Community-Based Aftercare Program, Juvenile Justice Bulletin, U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (2000).
222. Amanda Petteruti et al., The Costs of Confinement: Why Good Juvenile Justice Policies Make Good Fiscal Sense, Wash., D.C.: Justice Policy Institute (2009).
223. Bart Lubow, Safely Reducing Reliance on Detention: A Report From the Field, 67 Corrections Today 66 72 (2005).
224. D. A. Andrews et al., Does Correctional Treatment Work? A Clinically Relevant and Psychologically Informed Meta-Analysis, 28 Criminol. 369 (1990);
225. see also Mark W. Lipsey, Juvenile Delinquency Treatment: A Meta-Analytic Inquiry into the Variability of Effects, in Meta-Analysis for Explanation 83 (Thomas D. Cook et al., eds., 1992).
226. Charles M. Borduin et al., Multisystemic Treatment of Serious Juvenile Offenders: Long-Term Prevention of Criminality and Violence, 63 J. Consulting & Clin.Psychol. 569 (1995).
227. Gerald R. Davison et al., Abnormal Psychology, 490-491 (11th ed. 2010).
228. Lawrence S. Wrightsman et al., Psychology and the Legal System, 383 (7th ed. 2011).
229. See generally William M. Bolman, Toward Realizing the Prevention of Mental Illness, in Progress in Community Mental Health vol. I, 203, 208 (L. Bellack & H. H. Barten, eds. 1969)
230. See generally Moffitt, Adolescent-Limited and Life-Course- Persistent Antisocial Behavior, at 676
231. See Robert Martinson, What Works? Questions and Answers About Prison Reform, 35 Pub. Int. 22 (1974).
232. James F. Alexander & Bruce V. Parsons, Short-Term Behavioral Intervention with Delinquent Families: Impact on Family Process and Recidivism, 81 J. Abnormal Psychol. 219 (1973);
233. See James F. Alexander et al., Family-Based Interventions with Older, At-Risk Youth: From Promise to Proof to Practice, 21 J. Primary Prevention 185, 193-97 (2000)
234. Blueprints at http://www.colorado.edu/cspv/blueprints/modelprograms/FFT.html.
235. See generally Nancy G. Guerra et al., What Works: Best Practices with Juvenile Offenders, in Treating the Juvenile Offender 79 (Robert D. Hoge et al., eds., 2008).
236. See Blueprints at www.colorado.edu/cspv/blueprints/modelprograms/MST.html.
237. Scott W. Henggeler et al., Multisystemic Treatment of Antisocial Behavior in Children and Adolescents (1998).
238. Charles M. Borduin et al., Multisystemic Treatment of Serious Juvenile Offenders: Long-Term Prevention of Criminality and Violence, 63 J. Consulting & Clinical Psychol. 569, 573 (1995).
239. Cindy M. Schaeffer & Charles M. Borduin, Long-Term Follow-Up to a Randomized Clinical Trial of Multisystemic Therapy with Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders, 73 J. Consulting & Clinical Psychol. 445, 448 (2005).
240. Scott W. Henggeler et al., Multisystemic Therapy with Violent and Chronic Juvenile Offenders and Their Families: The Role of Treatment Fidelity in Successful Dissemination, 65 J. Consulting & Clinical Psychol. 821, 829 (1997).
241. Blueprints at www.colorado.edu/cspv/blueprints/modelprograms/MST.html.
242. See also MST Website at www.mstservices.com/cost_effectiveness.php.
243. See Blueprints at www.colorado.edu/cspv/blueprints/modelprograms/MTFC.html.
244. Patricia Chamberlain & John B. Reid, Comparison of Two Community Alternatives to Incarceration for Chronic Juvenile Offenders, 66 J. Consulting & Clinical Psychol. 624, 624-25 (1998).
245. Blueprints at www.colorado.edu/cspv/blueprints/modelprograms/MTFC.html.
246. See Blueprints at www.colorado.edu/cspv/blueprints/promisingprograms/BPP05.html
247. See Nicki R. Crick & Kenneth A. Dodge, A Review and Reformulation of Social Information-Processing Mechanism's in Children's Social Adjustment, 117 Psychol. Bull. 74 (1994).
248. Kenneth A. Dodge, Translational Science in Action: Hostile Attributional Style and the Development of Aggressive Behavior Problems, 18 Dev. Psychopathology 791-814 (2006);
249. Mark R. Fondacaro & Kenneth Heller, Attributional Style in Aggressive Adolescent Boys, 18 J. Abnormal Child Psychol. 75-89 (1990);
250. William Nasby et al., Attributional Bias Among Aggressive Boys to Interpret Unambiguous Social Stimuli as Displays of Hostility, 89 J. Abnormal Psychol. 459-468 (1980).
251. Kenneth A. Dodge & Angelia M. Tomlin, Utilization of Self-Schemas as a Mechanism of Interpretational Bias in Aggressive Children, 5 Social Cognition 280 (1987);
252. Kenneth A. Dodge & Joseph P. Newman, Biased Decision-Making Processes in Aggressive Boys, 90 J. Abnormal Psychol. 375 (1981).
253. Kenneth A. Dodge & Cynthia L. Frame, Social Cognitive Biases and Deficits in Aggressive Boys, 53 Child Dev. 620 (1982).
254. Nicki R. Crick & Kenneth A. Dodge, A Review and Reformulation of Social Information-Processing Mechanism's in Children's Social Adjustment, 117 Psychol. Bull. 74 (1994).
255. Kenneth A. Dodge, Translational Science in Action: Hostile Attributional Style and the Development of Aggressive Behavior Problems, 18 Dev. Psychopathology 791-814 (2006);
256. Laurence Steinberg, Cognitive and Affective Development in Adolescence, 9 Trends in Cognitive Sci. 69 (2005).
257. Nancy M. Slough et al., Preventing Serious Conduct Problems in School-Age Youth: The Fast Track Program, 15 Cognitive & Beh. Prac. 3 (2008);
258. Blueprint at http://www.colorado.edu/cspv/blueprints/promisingprograms/BPP05.html.
259. Moffitt, Adolescence-Limited and Life-Course-Persistent Antisocial Behavior; Slough et al., Preventing Serious Conduct Problems, at 6.
260. Slough et al., Preventing Serious Conduct Problems, at 7.
261. Mark A. Cohen, The Monetary Value of Saving a High-Risk Youth, 14 J. Quant. Criminol. 5 (1998).
262. Borduin, Multisystemic Treatment of Serious Juvenile Offenders, at 573
263. Schaeffer & Bourduin, Long- Term Followup, at 448
264. Henggeler et al., Multisystemic Treatment of Antisocial Behavior, at 130;
265. Marsha Swenson & Melanie Duncan, Multisystemic Therapy: Clinical Outcome and Cost Savings 1, 2 available at www.mstservices.com/outcomes_1a.pdf.
266. Edward Humes, No Matter How Loud I Shout: A Year in the Life of Juvenile Court 33 (1996).
267. William Ayers, A Kind and Just Parent: The Children of Juvenile Court 28 (1997).
268. Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency 9-10 (2d ed. 1977)
269. See Janet E. Ainsworth, Re-Imagining Childhood and Reconstructing the Legal Order: The Case for Abolishing the Juvenile Court, 69 N.C. L. Rev. 1083 (1991);
270. Robert O. Dawson, The Future of Juvenile Justice: Is It Time to Abolish the System? 81 J. Crim. L. & Criminol. 136 (1990);
271. Katherine Hunt Federle, The Abolition of the Juvenile Court: A Proposal for the Preservation of Children's Legal Rights, 16 J. Contemp. L. 23 (1990);
272. Barry C. Feld, Abolish the Juvenile Court: Youthfulness, Criminal Responsibility, and Sentencing Policy, 88 J. Crim. L. & Criminol. 68 (1997).
273. See Robert E. Shepherd, Collateral Consequences of Juvenile Proceedings: Part II, 15 Crim. Just. 41 (2000).
274. Jane Addams, My Friend Julia Lathrop 137 (1935).
275. Ben Lindsey & H. O'Higgins, The Beast 133 (1970) (Reprint of 1909 edition).
276. Martin R. Gardner, The Right of Juvenile Offenders to Be Punished: Some Implications of Treating Kids as Persons, 68 Neb. L. Rev. 182, 191 (1989).
277. David S. Tanenhaus, The Evolution of Transfer Out of the Juvenile Court, in The Changing Borders of Juvenile Justice: Transfers of Adolescents to Adult Court 13, 18 (Jeffrey Fagan & Franklin E. Zimring eds, 2000)
278. Platt, The Child Savers 141.
279. See also Julian W. Mack, The Juvenile Court, 23 Harv. L. Rev. 104, 107 (1909).
280. Tanenhaus, The Evolution of Transfer, at 40-41, n. 17.
281. Platt, The Child Savers, at 54.
282. Julian Mack, The Juvenile Court, 23 Harv. L. Rev. 104, 120 (1909).
283. Tanenhaus, The Evolution of Transfer, at 20-21.
284. Richard E. Redding, Adult Punishment for Juvenile Offenders: Does It Reduce Crime? in Handbook of Children, Culture, and Violence 375, 377 (Nancy E. Dowd, Dorothy G. Singer, & Robin Fretwell Wilson, eds., 2006).
285. Richard E. Redding & Barbara Mrozoksi, Adjudicatory and Dispositional Decision Making in Juvenile Justice, in Juvenile Delinquency: Prevention, Assessment and Intervention 232, 238, 243 (Kirk Heilbrun, Naomi E. Sevin Goldstein, & Richard E. Redding, eds., 2005);
286. Richard E. Redding & J. C. Howell, Blended Sentencing in American Juvenile Courts, in The Changing Borders of Juvenile Justice 151 (Jeffrey Fagan & Franklin E. Zimring, eds., 2000).
287. Elisabeth S. Scott & Laurence Steinberg, Blaming Youth, 81 Texas L. Rev. 799, 807-09 (2003).
288. Alfred S. Regnery, Getting Away with Murder: Why the Juvenile Justice System Needs an Overhaul, 34 Policy Rev. 65, 66 (2000).
289. Elizabeth S. Scott & Thomas Grisso, The Evolution of Adolescence: A Developmental Perspective on Juvenile Justice Reform, 88 J. Crim. L. & Criminol. 137 (1997);
290. Franklin E. Zimring, Penal Proportionality for the Young Offender: Notes on Immaturity, Capacity, and Diminished Responsibility, in Youth on Trial: A Developmental Perspective on Juvenile Justice 267 (Thomas Grisso & Robert G. Schwartz, eds., 2000)
291. Richard E. Redding, Juveniles Transferred to Juvenile Court: Legal Reform Proposals Based on Social Science Research, 1997 Utah L. Rev. 709, 757
292. Mack, The Juvenile Court, at 110 (emphasis added).
293. W. Bennett, J. DiIullio, Jr., & J. Walters, Body Count (1996).
294. See Christopher Slobogin, Treating Kids Right: Deconstructing and Reconstructing the Amenability to Treatment Concept, 10 J. Contemp. Leg. Issues 299, 332-33 (1999)
295. Daniel Filler, The New Rehabilitation, 91 Iowa L. Rev. 951, 954 (2006)
296. Tanenhaus, The Evolution of Transfer, at 30.
297. Barry C. Feld, A Century of Juvenile Justice: Work in Progress or a Revolution That Failed? 34 N. Ky. L. Rev. 189, 196 (2007).
298. Eric S. Janus, Preventing Sexual Violence: Setting Principled Constitutional Boundaries on Sex offender Commitments, 72 Ind. L.J. 157, 206 (1996)
299. see Edward Rubin, Just Say "No" to Retribution, 7 Buff. Crim. L. Rev. 17 (2003).
300. See Elizabeth S. Scott & Laurence Steinberg, Rethinking Juvenile Justice: Adolescent Development and the Regulation of Youth Crime 279-81 (2008)
301. E. J. Latessa, The Challenge of Change: Correctional Programs and Evidence-Based Practices, 3 Criminol. & Pub. Pol. 547, 549 (2004).
302. See Mark R. Fondacaro & Dennis P. Stolle, Revoking Motor Vehicle and Professional Licenses for Purposes of Child Support Enforcement: Constitutional Challenges and Policy Implications, 5 Cornell J. Law & Pub. Policy 355 (1996).
303. Mark R. Fondacaro, Dennis P. Stolle, & Brian L. Wilcox, Psycholegal Research in Non-Judicial Settings: Administrative Law, a New Frontier. Paper Presented at the Biennial Meeting of the American Psychology- Law Society (1996).
304. See Michael C. Dorf & Charles F. Sabel, Drug Treatment Courts and Emergent Experimentalist Government, 53 Vand. L. Rev. 831 (2000).
305. See generally, Rachel Barkow, The Court of Life and Death: The Two Tracks of Constitutional Sentencing Law and the Case for Uniformity, 107 Mich. L.Rev. 1145 (2009).
306. Michael R. Gottfredson & Travis Hirschi, A General Theory of Crime 108-09(1990)
307. See Jeremy Travis et al., From Prison to Home: The Dimensions and Consequences of Prisoner Reentry 5 (2001), available at www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/from_prison_to_home.pdf.
308. Jennifer Woolard et al., Informing Juvenile Justice Policy: Directions for Behavioral Science Research, 25 Law & Hum. Beh. 13, 15 (2001).
309. Wayne R. LaFave, Criminal Law 244, 246, 382 (4th ed. 2003).
310. See Anna L. Simpson, Rehabilitation as the Justification of a Separate Juvenile Justice System, 64 Cal. L. Rev. 984, 984--85 (1976)
311. Franklin E. Zimring, Penal Proportionality for the Young Offender: Notes on Immaturity, Capacity, and Diminished Responsibility, in Youth on Trial: A Developmental Perspective of Juvenile Justice 267-324 (Thomas Grisso & Robert G. Schwartz, eds., 2000)
312. Elizabeth S. Scott & Laurence Steinberg, Rethinking Juvenile Justice: Adolescent Development and the Regulation of Youth Crime (2008).
313. See, e.g., Franklin E. Zimring, Confronting Youth Crime: Report of the Twentieth Century Fund on Sentencing Policy Toward Young Offenders 80-81 (1978)
314. Michael L. Perlin & Keri K. Gould, Rashomon and the Criminal Law: Mental Disability and the Federal Sentencing Guidelines, 22 Am. J. Crim. L. 431, 447 (1995).
315. Nora V. Demleitner et al., Sentencing Law and Policy: Cases, Statutes and Guidelines 404 (2d ed. 2007)
316. See also John Q. La Fond & Mary L. Durham, Cognitive Dissonance: Have Insanity Defense and Civil Commitment Reforms Made a Difference?, 39 Vill. L. Rev. 71, 102-03 (1994)
317. Christopher Slobogin, Minding Justice: Laws that Deprive People with Mental Disability of Life and Liberty 80-83 (2006)
318. Terry A. Maroney, The False Promise of Adolescent Brain Science in Juvenile Justice, 85 Notre Dame L.Rev. 89, 165 (2009).
319. Terry Maroney, Adolescent Brain Science After Graham v. Florida, 86 Notre Dame L. Rev. 353, 388 (2010)
320. Scott & Steinberg, Rethinking Juvenile Justice, at 131-39.
321. See Scott & Steinberg, Rethinking Juvenile Justice, at 828 n. 119.
322. Barry C. Feld, Juvenile and Criminal Justice Systems' Responses to Juvenile Violence, 24 Crime & Justice 189, 245 (1998).
323. Scott & Steinberg, Rethinking Juvenile Justice, at 231.
324. See also Richard E. Redding, Adult Punishment for Juvenile Offenders: Does It Reduce Crime? in Handbook of Children, Culture, and Violence 375, at 389 (Nancy E. Dowd, Dorothy G. Singer, & Robin Fretwell Wilson, eds., 2006)
325. Michael Schumacher & Gwen A. Kurz, The 8% Solution: Preventing Serious, Repeat Juvenile Crime (1999)
326. See also David P. Farrington et al., Understanding and Controlling Crime 50-51 (1986)
327. Marvin E. Wolfgang et al., Delinquency in a Birth Cohort 88 (1972)
328. Stephen J. Schulhofer, Two Systems of Social Protection: Comments on the Civil-Criminal Distinction, with Particular Reference to Sexually Violent Predator Laws, 7 J. Contemp. Legal Issues 69, 85 (1996)
329. Eric S. Janus, Preventing Sexual Violence: Setting Principles Constitutional Boundaries on Sex Offender Commitments, 72 In. L. J. 157, 212 (1996)
330. See Bruce J. Winick, Sex Offender Law in the 1990s: A Therapeutic Jurisprudence Analysis, 4 Psychol., Pub. Pol. & L. 505, 524 (1998)
331. W. Lawrence Fitch, Sex Offender Commitment in the United States: Legislative and Policy Concerns (Robert Prentky et al., eds., 2003)
332. Scott & Steinberg, Rethinking Juvenile Justice, at 140-41.
333. Elizabeth Scott, Criminal Responsibility in Adolescence: Lessons from Development Psychology, in Youth on Trial, at 306.
334. Scott & Steinberg, Rethinking Juvenile Justice, at 281.
335. See Barefoot v. Estelle, 463 U.S. 880 (1983).
336. Robert Martinson, What Works? Questions and Answers about Prison Reform, 35 Pub. Int. 22 (1974).
337. Francis Allen, The Decline of the Rehabilitative Ideal: Penal Policy and Social Purpose 57 (1981).
338. Paul H. Robinson, Intuitions of Justice: Implications for Criminal Law and Justice Policy, 81 S.Cal.L.Rev. 1 (2007).
339. See Christopher Slobogin, Proving the Unprovable: The Role of Law, Science and Speculation in Adjudicating Culpability and Dangerousness 40-48 (2007)
340. Robert O. Dawson, Judicial Waiver in Theory and Practice, in The Changing Borders of Juvenile Justice: Transfers of Adolescents to Adult Court 45, 51 (Jeffrey Fagan & Franklin E. Zimring, eds, 2000)
341. See generally John Calvin Jeffries Jr., Legality, Vagueness and the Construction of Penal Statutes, 71 Va. L. Rev. 189 (1985).
342. Kolender v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352, 358 (1983).
343. See John Monahan, The Clinical Prediction of Violent Behavior 71 (1981).
344. Dean J. Champion & G. Larry Mays, Transferring Juveniles to Criminal Courts: Trends and Implications for Criminal Justice 6 (1991).
345. See generally Sara Sun Beale, You've Come a Long Way Baby: Two Waves of Juvenile Reform as Seen from Jena, Louisiana, 44 Harv. Civil Rights-Civil Liberties L. Rev. 511 (2009)
346. Angela J. Davis, Arbitrary Justice: The Power of the American Prosecutor 41 (2007)
347. See Scott & Steinberg, Rethinking Juvenile Justice, at 261-62;
348. Aaron Kupchik, Judging Juveniles: Prosecuting Adolescents in Adult and Juvenile Court 2-5 (2006).
349. Kupchik, Judging Juveniles, at 3.
350. Cf. Adam J. Kolber, The Subjective Experience of Punishment, 109 Colum. L. Rev. 182, 186 (2009)
351. See generally H.L.A. Hart, Punishment and Responsibility 28-53, 180-83 (1968).
352. See, e.g., Vernon L. Quinsey, Review of the Washington State Special Commitment Center Program for Sexually Violent Predators, 15 U. Puget Sound L. Rev. 704, 705-7 (1992).
353. See Scott & Steinberg, Rethinking Juvenile Justice, at 279-81
354. Melissa M. Moon et al., Is Child Saving Dead? Public Support for Juvenile Rehabilitation, 46 Crime & Delinquency 38 (2000)
355. Paul H. Robinson & John M. Darley, The Utility of Desert, 91 Nw. U. L. Rev. 453, 471-77 (1997).
356. Christopher Slobogin, Is Justice Just Us? Using Social Science to Inform the Criminal Law, 87 J. Crim. L. & Criminol. 315, 326-27 (1996).
357. Barbara Hudson, Justice in the Risk Society: Challenging and Re-affirming "Justice" in Late Modernity (2003).
358. See Fox Butterfield, All God's Children: The Bosket Family and the American Tradition of Violence 226-27 (1997)
359. See Robert Harlow et al., The Severity of Intermediate Penal Sanctions: A Psychophysical Scaling Approach for Obtaining Community Perceptions, 11 J. Quant. Criminol. 72 (1995).
360. Cf. Adam J. Kolber, How to Improve Empirical Desert, Brooklyn L. Rev. 19-21 (2010)
361. Barry Glassner et al., A Note on the Deterrent Effect of Juvenile v. Adult Jurisdiction, 31 Social Probs. 31 219, 220-21 (1983)
362. See generally Paul H. Robinson & John M. Darley, Does Criminal Law Deter? A Behavioural Science Investigation, 24 Oxford Leg. Studies 173 (2004).
363. David A. Anderson, The Deterrence Hypothesis and Picking Pockets at the Pickpocket's Hanging, 4 Am. L. & Economics Rev. 1, 20-21 (2002).
364. Wanda D. Foglia, Perceptual Deterrence and the Mediating Effect of Internalized Norms Among Inner-City Teenagers, 34(4) J. Res.Crime & Delinq. 414, 433-35 (1997)
365. Anne Schneider & Laurie Ervin, Specific Deterrence, Rational Choice, and Decision Heuristics: Applications in Juvenile Justice, 71 Social Sci. Quart. 585, 598 (1999)
366. Thomas A. Loughran et al., Differential Deterrence: Studying Heterogeneity and Changes in Perceptual Deterrence among Serious Youthful Offenders, 20 Crime & Delinq. 1 (2009).
367. Steve Levitt, Juvenile Crime and Punishment, 106(6) J. Political Econ. 1158 (1998).
368. See also David S. Lee & Justin McCrary, The Deterrence Effect of Prison: Dynamic Theory and Evidence, 34 (Princeton Working Paper No. 550, 2009), available at www.irs.princteon.edu/pubspdgs/550.pdf
369. Henry M. Hart Jr., The Aims of the Criminal Law, 23 L. & Contemp. Probs. 401, 407-8 (1958).
370. See, e.g., Paul H. Robinson, A Failure of Moral Conviction? 117 Pub. Int. 40, 44 (1994)
371. See, e.g., Tom Tyler, Why People Obey the Law 23-24 (2d ed. 2006);
372. Robert Meir & Weldon Johnson, Deterrence as Social Control: The Legal and Extralegal Production of Conformity, 42 Am. Soc. Rev. 292, 302 (1977)
373. Slobogin, Minding Justice, 163.
374. See, e.g., David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and Its Alternatives in Progressive America 159-201 (1980);
375. Wilbert Rideau and Ron Wikberg, Life Sentences 124-47 (1992).
376. JoAnn Prause, Discretionary Parole Release: Length of Imprisonment, Percent of Sentence Served, and Recidivism, 28 J. Crime & Justice 27 (2005).
377. See also Bert Useem et al., Institute for Social Research, University of New Mexico, Sentencing Matters, but Does Good Time Matter More? 6 (June 1996)
378. See, e.g., Nora V. Demleitner, Good Conduct Time: How Much and for Whom? The Unprincipled Approach of the Model Penal Code: Sentencing, 61 U.Fla.L.Rev. 777, 782-84 (2009).
379. See John Q. La Fond, The Costs of Enacting a Sexual Predator Law, 4 Psychol., Pub. Pol. & L. 468, 500 (1998).
380. See generally G.C.N. Hall, Sexual Offender Recidivism Revisited: A Meta-Analysis of Recent Treatment Studies, 63 J. Consulting & Clinical Psychol. 802 (1995)
381. Daniel Filler, The New Rehabilitation, 91 Iowa L. Rev. 951, 954 (2006)
382. Richard E. Redding & J.C. Howell, Blended Sentencing in American Juvenile Courts, in Changing Borders, at 146.
383. Joel F. Handler, The Juvenile Court and the Adversary System: Problems of Function and Form, 1965 Wis. L. Rev. 7, 7 (1965).
384. See, e.g., Gary B. Melton, Taking Gault Seriously: Toward a New Juvenile Court, 68 Nebraska Law Review 146, 167 (1989);
385. Martin R. Gardner, Punitive Juvenile Justice: Some Observations on a Recent Trend, 10 Int'l J. L. & Psychiat. 129, 147 (1987);
386. Irene M. Rosenberg, The Constitutional Rights of Children Charged with Crime: Proposal for a Return to the Not So Distant Past, 27 UCLA L. Rev. 656, 720-21 (1980).
387. Janet E. Ainsworth, Re-imagining Childhood and Reconstructing the Legal Order: The Case for Abolishing the Juvenile Court, 69 N. C. L. Rev. 1083, 1120 (1991);
388. Barry C. Feld, Abolish the Juvenile Court: Youthfulness, Criminal Responsibility and Sentencing Policy, 88 J. Crim. L. & Criminol. 68, 97 (1998).
389. Samuel M. Davis et al., Children in the Legal System 745 (1997).
390. Julian Mack, The Juvenile Court, 23 Harv. L. Rev. 104, 120 (1909).
391. David T. Huang, "Less Unequal Footing": State Courts' Per Se Rules for Juvenile Waivers During Interrogations and the Case for Their Implementation, 86 Cornell L. Rev. 437, 445 (2001).
392. Henry J. Friendly, Some Kind of Hearing, 123 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1267, 1316 (1975).
393. See William F. Fox, Jr., Understanding Administrative Law 142, 144 (1997).
394. Londoner v. City of Denver, 210 U.S. 373, 386 (1908).
395. See Jerry L. Mashaw, Due Process in the Administrative State 8-9 (1985).
396. Richard J. Pierce, The Due Process Counterrevolution of the 1990s?, 96 Colum. L. Rev. 1973, 1980 (1996).
397. See generally Jerry L. Mashaw, The Supreme Court's Due Process Calculus for Administrative Adjudication in Mathews v. Eldridge: Three Factors in Search of a Theory of Value, 44 U. Chicago L. Rev. 28 (1976).
398. See Christopher Slobogin, Arti Rai, & Ralph Reisner, Law and the Mental Health System: Civil and Criminal Aspects 852 (5th ed. 2009).
399. See John Thibaut et al., Procedural Justice as Fairness, 26 Stanford L. Rev. 1271, 1289 (1974).
400. John Thibaut & Laurens Walker, Procedural Justice: A Psychological Analysis (1975).
401. See E. Allan Lind & Tom R. Tyler, The Social Psychology of Procedural Justice 3 (1988).
402. Lind & Tyler, Social Psychology, at 26.
403. Thibaut & Walker, Procedural Justice, at 67.
404. John Thibaut & Laurens Walker, A Theory of Procedure, 66 Calif. L. Rev. 541, 546 (1978).
405. Thibaut & Walker, Procedural Justice, ch. 8 (finding respondents in four countries- the United States, France, West Germany, and Great Britain-all preferred the adversarial process to the inquisitorial process).
406. John Thibaut et al., Adversary Presentation and Bias in Legal Decisionmaking, 86 Harv. L. Rev. 386, 388 (1972).
407. Blair H. Sheppard, Justice Is No Simple Matter: Case for Elaborating Our Model of Procedural Fairness, 49 J. Personality & Social Psychol. 953, 953-55 (1985).
408. Rebecca A. Anderson & Amy L. Otto, Perceptions of Fairness in the Justice System: A Cross-Cultural Comparison, 31 Social Behavior & Personality 557 (2003);
409. Kwok Leung, Cross-Cultural Study of Procedural Fairness and Disputing Behavior, 53 J. Personality & Social Psychol. 898, 903 (1987).
410. Lind & Tyler, Social Psychology, at 117.
411. Sheppard, Justice Is No Simple Matter, at 956-57.
412. See Lind & Tyler, Social Psychology, at 87.
413. Norman Poythress et al., Procedural Preferences, Perceptions of Fairness and Compliance with Outcomes: A Study of Alternatives to the Standard Adversary Trial Procedure, 18 Law & Hum. Beh. 361 (1994).
414. Donna Shestowsky, Procedural Preferences in Alternative Dispute Resolution: A Close, Modern Look at an Old Idea, 10 Psychol., Pub. Pol. & L. 211 (2004).
415. Tom R. Tyler, Procedural Justice Research, 1 Soc. Just. Res. 41, 45 (1987)
416. William Austin et al., Effect of Mode of Adjudication, Presence of Defense Counsel, and Favorability of Verdict on Observers' Evaluation of a Criminal Trial, 11 J. Applied Social Psychol. 281, 297 (1981).
417. Barton Poulson, A Third Voice: A Review of Empirical Research on the Psychological Outcomes of Restorative Justice, 2003 Utah L. Rev. 167, 179-80 table 1.
418. Lind & Tyler, Social Psychology, at 19.
419. Thibaut & Walker, Procedural Justice, at 547.
420. Thibaut & Walker, Procedural Justice, at 41-53.
421. Lind & Tyler, Social Psychology, at 114.
422. Thibaut & Walker, Procedural Justice, at 28-40.
423. Blair H. Sheppard & Neil Vidmar, Adversary Pretrial Procedures and Testimonial Evidence: Effects of Lawyer's Role and Machiavellianism, 39 J. Personality & Social Psychol. 320, 322 (1980).
424. Neil Vidmar & N.M. Laird, Adversary Social Roles: Their Effects on Witnesses' Communication of Evidence and the Assessment of Adjudicators, 44 J. Personality & Social Psychol. 888 (1983).
425. Richard A. Rosen, Disciplinary Sanctions Against Prosecutors for Brady Violations: A Paper Tiger, 65 N. C. L. Rev. 693, 697-703, 720-30 (1987)
426. See Harold J. Rothwax, Guilty: The Collapse of Criminal Justice 141 (1996)
427. Mirjan Damaska, Presentation of Evidence and Factfinding Precision, 123 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1083, 1093-94 n.22 (1975).
428. Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr. et al., The Law and Ethics of Lawyering 469 (2d ed. 1994)
429. See generally Mirjan Damaska, Evidentiary Barriers to Conviction and Two Models of Criminal Procedure: A Comparative Study, 121 U. Pa. L. Rev. 506, 582 (1973)
430. Gerald E. Lynch, Screening Versus Plea Bargaining: Exactly What Are We Trading Off?, 55 Stanford L. Rev. 1399, 1404 (2003)
431. See Stephanos Bibas, Brady v. Maryland: From Adversarial Gamesmanship Toward the Search for Innocence? in Criminal Procedure Stories 146 (Carol Steiker ed., 2006).
432. Gary B. Melton et al., Psychological Evaluations for the Courts: A Handbook for Mental Health Professionals and Lawyers 480 (3d ed. 2007).
433. See Jeffrey Fagan & Tom R. Tyler, Legal Socialization of Children and Adolescents, 18 Soc. Just. Res. 217, 217 (2005).
434. Godinez v. Moran, 509 U.S. 389 (1993).
435. Richard J. Bonnie, The Competence of Criminal Defendants, 10 Beh. Sci. & L. 291 (1992).
436. see N. Dickon Repucci et al., Challenging Juvenile Transfer: Faulty Assumptions and Misguided Policies, in Children as Victims, Witnesses and Offenders 295, 299-304 (Bette L. Bottoms and Cynthia Nadjowski, eds., 2009)
437. See also Elizabeth S. Scott & Thomas Grisso, Developmental Incompetence, Due Process, and Juvenile Justice Policy, 83 N.C. L. Rev. 793, 797 (2005);
438. Allison Redlich et al., The Police Interrogation of Children and Adolescents, in Interrogations, Confessions, and Entrapment 107 (G. Daniel Lassiter, ed., 2004).
439. Ellen Marrus, Best Interests Equals Zealous Advocacy: A Not So Radical View of Holistic Representation for Children Accused of Crime, 62 Md. L. Rev. 288, 316-17 (2003).
440. Allision D. Redlich and Saul M. Kassin, Police Interrogation and False Confessions: The Inherent Risk of Youth, in Children as Victims, Witnesses and Offenders, at 275-94.
441. See Redlich & Kassin, Police Interrogation (summarizing studies).
442. Jessica R. Meyer & N. Dickon Repucci, Police Practices and Perceptions Regarding Juvenile Interrogation and Interrogative Suggestibility, 25 Beh. Sci. & L. 1 (2007).
443. H. Richard Uviller, The Tilted Playing Field: Is Criminal Justice Unfair? 201-2 (1999);
444. Richard A. Posner, An Economic Approach to the Law of Evidence, 51 Stanford L. Rev. 1477, 1527 (1999).
445. Self-Incrimination Rights Conflicts with Treatment, Home Release Programs, 4 Correctional Law Reporter 1 (1992);
446. see also Stephanos Bibas & Richard A. Bierschback, Integrating Remorse and Apology into Criminal Procedure, 114 Yale L. J. 85, 148 (2004).
447. See Christopher Slobogin, An Empirically-Based of American and European Regulatory Approaches to Police Investigation, 22 Michigan J. Int'l L. 423, 442-44 (2001).
448. Anthony J. Sciolino, The Changing Role of the Family Court Judge: New Ways of Stemming the Tide, 3 Cardozo Public Law, Policy & Ethics J. 395, 400 (2005).
449. Cf. Lind & Tyler, Social Psychology, at 114
450. See Roger C. Park, Adversarial Influences on the Interrogation of Trial Witnesses, in Adversarial v. Inquisitorial Justice: Psychological Perspectives on Criminal Justice Systems 131, 145-63, 166 (Peter J. van Koppen & Steven D. Penrod eds., 2004).
451. Margaret C. Stevenson et al., Understanding Adult Perceptions of Juvenile Offenders, in Children as Victims, Witnesses and Offenders, at 349-368.
452. See generally, Dan Simon, Criminal Trials: What Are They Good For? 64 Vand. L. Rev. 1 (2011)
453. Melinda G. Schmidt et al., Effectivness of Participation as a Defendant: The Attorney-Juvenile Client Relationship, 21 Beh. Sci. & L. 175, 192 (2003).
454. Paul Holland, Developing Effective (and Reflective) Practitioners in Problem-Solving Courts (2009).
455. Melton et al., Psychological Evaluations for the Courts, at 480 (footnote omitted).
456. William Ayers, A Kind and Just Parent 29 (1997)
457. Emily Buss, Rethinking the Connection Between Developmental Science and Juvenile Justice, 76 U. Chi L. Rev. 493, 512 (2009).
458. Allison R. Shiff & David B. Wexler, Teen Court: A Therapeutic Jurisprudence Perspective, in Law in a Therapeutic Key: Developments in Therapeutic Jurisprudence 287, 290-95 (David B. Wexler & Bruce J. Winick eds., 1996).
459. Gwen Robinson and Joanna Shapland, Reducing Recidivism: A Task for Restorative Justice?, 48 British J. Criminol. 337 (2008);
460. John Braithwaite, Restorative Justice: Assessing Optimistic and Pessimistic Accounts, in 25 Crime and Justice: A Review of Research 20-28 (Michael Tonry ed., 1999).
461. See generally, Tamar R. Birckhead, Toward a Theory of Procedural Justice for Juveniles, 57 Buffalo L. Rev. 1447, 1449 (2009)