Judging juveniles: Prosecuting adolescents in adult and juvenile courts

Judging Juveniles: Prosecuting Adolescents in Adult and Juvenile Courts

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 1-211

  Kupchik, Aaron ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84900167236     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (320)

1. See Phillip Aries (1967) Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life. NY: Vintage Books;
2. Barry C. Feld (1999) Bad Kids: Race and the Transformation of the Juvenile Court. NY: Oxford University Press;
3. Viviana A. Zelizer (1987) Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
4. Howard Snyder and Melissa Sickmund (1999) Juvenile Offenders and Victims: A National Report. National Center for Juvenile Justice.
5. Quoted in Sam Handlin, "Fourteen-year-old Lionel Tate Sentenced to Life in Prison." Court TV.com, 3/9/02.
6. Quoted in Handlin (2002).
7. Quoted in Lionel Tate v. State of Florida, 864 So. 2d 44, 2003.
8. See Laurie Schaffner (2002) "An Age of Reason: Paradoxes in the U.S. Legal Construction of Adulthood." The International Journal of Children's Rights 10:201-232.
9. Dahlia Lithwick (2003) "The Pied Sniper: Was Lee Boyd Malvo Brainwashed into a Killing Machine?" Slate, 9/25/03.
10. Sociologists studying courts have used this term to describe the prosecutors, judges, defense attorneys, and any other professionals who work together to process defendants, e.g., James Eisenstein and Herbert Jacob (1977) Felony Justice: An Organizational Analysis of Criminal Courts. Boston: Little Brown.
11. James Eisenstein, Roy Flemming, and Peter Nardulli (1988) The Contours of Justice: Communities and Their Courts. Boston: Little, Brown.
12. E.g., Abraham S. Blumberg (1967) Criminal Justice. Chicago: Quadrangle Books;
13. Malcolm Feeley (1973) "Two Models of the Criminal Justice System: An Organizational Perspective." Law and Society Review 7:407-425;
14. Malcolm Feely (1979) The Process Is the Punishment. New York: Russell Sage Foundation;
15. Mike McConville and Chester Mirsky (1995) "Guilty Plea Courts: A Social Disciplinary Model of Justice." Social Problems 42:216-234;
16. Herbert L. Packer (1964) "Two Models of the Criminal Process." University of Pennsylvania Law Review 113:1-68;
17. Herbert L. Packer (1968) The Limits of the Criminal Sanction. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press;
18. Jerome Skolnick (1967) "Social Control in the Adversary System." Journal of Conflict Resolution 11:53-70.
19. Packer (1964, 1968).
20. Packer (1964 p. 11).
21. Feld (1999);
22. see also Barry C. Feld (1989) "The Right to Counsel in Juvenile Court: An Empirical Study of When Lawyers Appear and the Difference They Make." Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 79:1185-1346;
23. Barry C. Feld (1998) "Juvenile and Criminal Justice Systems' Responses to Youth Violence." In Crime and Justice: An Annual Review, ed. Michael Tonry and Mark H. Moore, 24:189-261;
24. M. A. Bortner (1982) Inside a Juvenile Court: The Tarnished Ideal of Individualized Justice. New York: New York University Press.
25. Though several studies find significant effects of race and gender on case outcomes, many interpret them as indicating systematic categorization and discrimination rather than as evidence of individualized justice. See Celesta A. Albonetti (1997) "Sentencing under the Federal Sentencing Guidelines: Effects of Defendant Characteristics, Guilty Pleas, and Departures on Sentence Outcomes for Drug Offenses, 1991-1992." Law and Society Review 31:789-822;
26. Cassia Spohn, John Gruhl, and Susan Welch (1982) "The Effect of Race on Sentencing: A Re-examination of an Unsettled Question." Law and Society Review 16:72-88;
27. Jeffery T. Ulmer and John H. Kramer (1996) "Court Communities under Sentencing Guidelines: Dilemmas of Formal Rationality and Sentencing Disparity." Criminology 34:383-407;
28. Marjorie S. Zatz (1985) "Pleas, Priors and Prison: Racial/Ethnic Differences in Sentencing." Social Science Research 14:169-193; for a review
29. see Marjorie S. Zatz (2000) "The Convergence of Race, Ethnicity, Gender and Class on Court Decisionmaking: Looking Toward the 21st Century." Criminal Justice 3:503-552.
30. See David Garland (2001) The Culture of Control. New York: Oxford University Press.
31. Francis A. Allen (1981) The Decline of the Rehabilitative Ideal: Penal Policy and Social Purpose. New Haven: Yale University Press.
32. Malcolm Feeley and Jonathan Simon (1992) "The New Penology: Notes on the Emerging Strategy of Corrections and Its Implications." Criminology 30:449-474;
33. Jonathan Simon and Malcolm Feeley (1995) "True Crime: The New Penology and the Public Discourse on Crime." In Punishment and Social Control, ed. Thomas G. Blomberg and Stanley Cohen. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
34. E.g., David Garland (1995) "Penal Modernism and Post-Modernism." In Punishment and Social Control, ed. Thomas G. Blomberg and Stanley Cohen. New York: Aldine De Gruyter;
35. Karol Lucken (1998) "Contemporary Penal Trends: Modern or Postmodern?" British Journal of Criminology 38:106-123.
36. E.g., Bill McCollum (Senator) (1999) Putting Consequences Back into Juvenile Justice: Federal, State and Local Levels: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Crime of the House Committee on the Judiciary, 106th Cong. 10, 1999.
37. Donald T. DiFrancesco (1980) "Juvenile Crime Must be Handled With Maturity." New York Times, November 16, 1980;
38. National District Attorneys Association (2000) Resource Manual and Policy Positions on Juvenile Crime Issues;
39. see also Eric K. Klein (1998) "Dennis the Menace or Billy the Kid: An Analysis of the Role of Transfer to Criminal Court in Juvenile Justice." American Criminal Law Review 35:371-412.
40. See also DiFrancesco (1980); Michael D. Rushford (1994) Taking Crime Seriously: An Agenda for the Governor's Crime Summit. Sacramento, CA: Criminal Justice Legal Foundation;
41. Pete Wilson (2000) "How Is Juvenile Justice Served? Outmoded System Was Designed to Deal with Less Serious Crimes." San Francisco Chronicle, February 27, 2000.
42. Thomas J. Bernard (1992) The Cycle of Juvenile Justice. New York: Oxford University Press;
43. Donna M. Bishop and Charles E. Frazier (1991) "Transfer of Juveniles to Criminal Court: A Case Study and Analysis of Prosecutorial Waiver." Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics, and Public Policy 5:281-302; Feld (1999);
44. Edwin Lemert (1970) Social Action and Legal Change: Revolution within the Juvenile Court. Chicago: Aldine;
45. Anthony Platt (1977) The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (2nd ed.) Chicago: University of Chicago Press;
46. David J. Rothman (1980) Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and Its Alternative in Progressive America. Boston: Little, Brown;
47. Ellen Ryerson (1978) The Best Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment. New York: Hill and Wang.
48. See Bernard (1992);
49. Rothman (1980);
50. Steven Schlossman (1977) Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of Progressive Juvenile Justice, 1825-1920. Chicago: University of Chicago Press;
51. John Sutton (1988) Stubborn Children: Controlling Delinquency in the United States. Berkeley: University of California Press.
52. Platt (1977);
53. see also Jacques Donzelot (1979) The Policing of Families, trans. Robert Hurley. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
54. In Franklin E. Zimring (2000) "The Punitive Necessity of Waiver." In The Changing Borders of Juvenile Justice, ed. Jeffrey Fagan and Franklin E. Zimring. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p. 210.
55. See also Bortner (1982);
56. Gray Cavender and Paul Knepper (1992) "Strange Interlude: An Analysis of Juvenile Parole Revocation Decision Making." Social Problems 39:387-399;
57. Francis T. Cullen, Kathryn M. Golden, and John B. Cullen (1983) "Is Child Saving Dead? Attitudes toward Juvenile Rehabilitation in Illinois." Journal of Criminal Justice 11:1-13;
58. Robert M. Emerson (1969) Judging Delinquents: Context and Process in Juvenile Court. Chicago: Aldine;
59. Linda F. Giardino (1997) "Statutory Rhetoric: The Reality behind Juvenile Justice Policies in America." Journal of Law and Policy 5:223-276;
60. Don M. Gottfredson (1999) Effects of Judges' Sentencing Decisions on Criminal Careers. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs;
61. Thomas Grisso, Alan Tomkins, and Pamela Casey (1988) "Psychosocial Concepts in Juvenile Law." Law and Human Behavior 12:403-437;
62. Gordon A. Martin (1992) "The Delinquent and the Juvenile Court: Is There Still a Place for Rehabilitation?" Connecticut Law Review 25:57-93;
63. Howard Parker, Maggie Casbarn, and David Turnbull (1981) Receiving Juvenile Justice: Adolescents and State Care and Control. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. For evidence of a juvenile justice model operating in juvenile court
64. see Joseph B. Sanborn, Jr. (1994) "Remnants of Parens Patriae in the Adjudicatory Hearing: Is a Fair Trial Possible in Juvenile Court?" Crime and Delinquency 40:599-614.
65. Donzelot (1979, p. 110).
66. Eisenstein et al. (1988);
67. see also Jo Dixon (1995) "The Organizational Context of Criminal Sentencing." American Journal of Sociology 100:1157-1198;
68. Jeffery T. Ulmer (1997) Social Worlds of Sentencing: Court Communities under Sentencing Guidelines. New York: SUNY Press; Ulmer and Kramer (1996);
69. Jeffery T. Ulmer and John H. Kramer (1998) "The Use and Transformation of Formal Decision-Making Criteria: Sentencing Guidelines, Organizational Contexts, and Case Processing Strategies." Social Problems 45:248-267.
70. Aaron V. Cicourel (1968) The Social Organization of Juvenile Justice. New York: Wiley; Emerson (1969).
71. Stewart Asquith (1983) Children and Justice: Decision-making in Children's Hearings and Juvenile Courts. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press.
72. Joachim Savelsberg (1992) "Law That Does Not Fit Society: Sentencing Guidelines as a Neoclassical Reaction to the Dilemmas of Substantivized Law." American Journal of Sociology 97:1346-1381.
73. David Tanenhaus (2004) Juvenile Justice in the Making. New York: Oxford University Press.
74. Snyder and Sickmund (1999).
75. Patrick Griffin (2003) Trying and Sentencing Juveniles as Adults: An Analysis of State Transfer and Blended Sentencing Laws. Pittsburgh, PA: National Center for Juvenile Justice.
76. See Sara Raymond (2000) "From Playpens to Prisons: What the Gang Violence and Juvenile Crime Prevention Act of 1998 Does to California's Juvenile Justice System and Reasons to Repeal It." Golden Gate University Law Review 30:258-289.
77. Not only are these youth (e.g., sixteen- and seventeen-year-olds in New York) not counted for any transfer research, but they are excluded from estimates of how many youth get prosecuted as adults; e.g., Steven D. Levitt (1998) "Juvenile Crime and Punishment." Journal of Political Economy 106:1156-1185;
78. Gerard A. Rainville and Steven K. Smith (2003) Juvenile Felony Defendants in Criminal Courts. Washington, DC: Office of Justice Programs.
79. Linda J. Collier (1998) "Juvenile Crime and Punishment." Journal of Political Economy 106:1156-1185; National District Attorneys Association (2000); Wilson (2000).
80. Donald P. Mears (2001) "Getting Tough with Juvenile Offenders: Explaining Support for Sanctioning Youths as Adults." Criminal Justice and Behavior 28:206-226.
81. See Feld (1999).
82. Loretta J. Stalans and Gary T. Henry (1994) "Societal Views of Justice for Adolescents Accused of Murder." Law and Human Behavior 18:675-696.
83. Garland (2001).
84. See Allen (1981).
85. Eric L. Jensen and Linda K. Metsger (1994) "A Test of the Deterrent Effect of Legislative Waiver on Violent Juvenile Crime." Crime and Delinquency 40:96-104;
86. Edwin A. Risler, Tim Sweatman, and Larry Nackerud (1998) "Evaluating the Georgia Legislative Waiver's Effectiveness in Deterring Juvenile Crime." Research on Social Work Practice 8:657-667;
87. Simon Singer and David MacDowall (1988) "Criminalizing Delinquency: The Deterrent Effects of the Juvenile Offender Law." Law and Society Review 22:521-535.
88. Donna M. Bishop, Charles E. Frazier, Lonn Lanza-Kaduce, and Lawrence Winner (1996) "The Transfer of Juveniles to Criminal Court: Does It Make a Difference?" Crime and Delinquency 42:171-191;
89. Jeffrey Fagan (1996) "The Comparative Advantage of Juvenile versus Criminal Court Sanctions on Recidivism among Adolescent Felony Offenders." Law and Policy 18:79-113;
90. Lonn Lanza-Kaduce, Charles E. Frazier, Jodi Lane, and Donna M. Bishop (2002) Juvenile Transfer to Criminal Court Study: Final Report. Report to Florida Department of Juvenile Justice;
91. David L. Myers (2001) Excluding Violent Youths from Juvenile Court: The Effectiveness of Legislative Waiver. New York: LFB Scholarly Press;
92. Marcy R. Podkopacz and Barry Feld (1996) "The End of the Line: An Empirical Study of Judicial Waiver." Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 86:449-492;
93. Lawrence Winner, Lonn Lanza-Kaduce, Donna M. Bishop, and Charles E. Frazier (1997) "The Transfer of Juveniles to Criminal Court: Reexamining Recidivism over the Long Term." Crime and Delinquency 43:548-563.
94. Emile Durkheim (trans. W. D. Halls, 1984 [1893]) The Division of Labor in Society. New York: Free Press.
95. Carrie S. Fried and N. Dickon Repucci (2001) "Criminal Decision Making: The Development of Adolescent Judgment, Criminal Responsibility, and Culpability." Law and Human Behavior 25:45-61;
96. Thomas Grisso and Robert Schwartz, eds. (2000) Youth on Trial: A Developmental Perspective on Juvenile Justice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press;
97. Thomas Grisso, Laurence Steinberg, and Jennifer Woolard (2003) "Juveniles' Competence to Stand Trial: A Comparison of Adolescents' and Adults' Capacities as Trial Defendants." Law and Human Behavior 27:333-363;
98. Elizabeth S. Scott, N. Dickon Repucci, and Jennifer L. Woolard (1995) "Evaluating Adolescent Decision Making in Legal Contexts." Law and Human Behavior 19:221-244;
99. Laurence Steinberg and Elizabeth Cauffman (1996) "Maturity of Judgment in Adolescence: Psychosocial Factors in Adolescent Decision Making." Law and Human Behavior 20:249-272.
100. For a review, see M. A. Bortner, Marjorie S. Zatz, and Darnell F. Hawkins (2000) "Race and Transfer: Empirical Research and Social Context," in Fagan and Zimring (2000).
101. See Zimring (2000).
102. Scholars have discussed adolescents' level of maturity and cognitive functioning, and whether it is good policy to prosecute them in criminal courts; see Grisso and Schwartz (2000). Recently, this debate has been reenergized by academics using the reduced maturity and culpability of youth to argue against executing adolescents;
103. see Barry C. Feld (2003) "Competence, Culpability and Punishment: Implications of Atkins for Executing and Sentencing Adolescents." Hofstra Law Review 32:463-552. Yet no prior research compares case processing of adolescents in criminal court to examine if anything changes with transfer to criminal court, or how ideas of reduced culpability among youth shape the criminal court prosecution of adolescents.
104. E.g., Bishop et al. (1996);
105. Daniel P. Mears and Samuel H. Field (2000) "Theorizing Sanctioning in a Criminalized Juvenile Court." Criminology 38:983-1020;
106. Podkopacz and Feld (1996);
107. Winner et al. (1997).
108. See Lanza-Kaduce et al. (2002).
109. See Jeffrey A. Fagan (1991) The Comparative Impacts of Juvenile and Criminal Court Sanctions on Adolescent Felony Offenders. Report to National Institute of Justice;
110. Jeffrey A. Fagan (1995) "Separating the Men from the Boys: The Comparative Advantage of Juvenile versus Criminal Court Sanctions on Recidivism among Adolescent Felony Offenders." In Serious, Violent and Chronic Juvenile Offenders: A Sourcebook, ed. James C. Howell, Barry Kris- berg, J. David Hawkins, and John J. Wilson. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Fagan (1996).
111. Eisenstein et al. (1988).
112. This list was initially set at twelve but has since expanded to seventeen through legislative amendments; see Eric Warner (2000) The Juvenile Offender Handbook. New York: Looseleaf Law Publications, Inc.
113. Quoted in Simon I. Singer (1996) Recriminalizing Delinquency: Violent Juvenile Crime and Juvenile Justice Reform. New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 52.
114. Quoted in Singer (1996, p. 53).
115. Criminal Justice Agency (2001) Annual Report on the Adult Court Case Processing of Juvenile Offenders in New York City, January through December 2000. New York: Criminal Justice Agency.
116. Warner (2000).
117. Akiva Liberman, William Raleigh, and Freda Solomon (2000) Specialized Court Parts for Juvenile Offenders in New York City's Adult Felony Courts: Case Processing in 1994-1995 and 1995-1996. New York: New York City Criminal Justice Agency.
118. Senate Judiciary Committee Statement No. 641-L, 1982; see also Aaron Kupchik, Jeffrey Fagan, and Akiva Liberman (2003) "Punishment, Proportionality and Jurisdictional Transfer of Adolescent Offenders: A Test of the Leniency Gap Hypothesis." Stanford Law and Policy Review 14:57-83.
119. See David Garland (1985) Punishment and Welfare: A History of Penal Strategies. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate.
120. Ulmer (1997).
121. Eisenstein and Jacob (1977);
122. Eisenstein et al. (1988);
123. Emerson (1969);
124. David Sudnow (1965) "Normal Crime: Sociological Features of the Penal Code in a Public Defender's Office." Social Problems 12:255-270;
125. Ulmer (1997).
126. Jane Fritsch, and David Rohde (2001a) "Lawyers Often Fail New York's Poor." New York Times, April 8, 2001, p. 1;
127. Jane Fritsch and David Rohde (2001b) "For the Poor, a Lawyer with 1,600 Clients." New York Times, April 9, 2001, p. 1;
128. Jane Fritsch and David Rohde (2001c) "For Poor, Appeals Are Luck of the Draw." New York Times, April 10, 2001, p. 1;
129. see also John Baldwin and Michael McConville (1977) Negotiated Justice: Pressures to Plead Guilty. London: Martin Robertson.
130. Harold Garfinkel (1956) "Conditions of Successful Degradation Ceremonies" American Journal of Sociology 61:420-424.
131. Feeley (1979).
132. Sudnow (1965).
133. Blumberg (1967).
134. See also Packer (1964, 1968).
135. Platt (1977);
136. Rothman (1980);
137. Ryerson (1978).
138. Feld (1987, 1998, 1999).
139. Donzelot (1979, pp. 107-108).
140. Bernard (1992);
141. Feld (1999);
142. Christopher P. Manfredi (1998) The Supreme Court and Juvenile Justice. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
143. E.g., Bortner (1982);
144. Feld (1999);
145. Mark D. Jacobs (1990) Screwing the System and Making It Work: Juvenile Justice in the No-Fault Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
146. Emerson (1969).
147. See David Matza (1964) Delinquency and Drift. New York: Wiley.
148. Of course, "treatment" programs-even rehabilitative ones-are considered by some writers to be subtle versions of social control; see Donzelot (1979);
149. Michel Foucault (1977) Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. London: Allen Lane;
150. Platt (1977). The distinction I suggest here is between rehabilitative treatment directed at reforming a defendant's behavior through education and counseling, and a more coercive regime that focuses on supervision and threats of punishment.
151. Emerson (1969).
152. See Aaron Kupchik (2004) "Youthfulness, Responsibility and Punishment: Admonishing Adolescents in Criminal Court." Punishment and Society: The International Journal of Penology 6(2):149-173 (reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Ltd.; © SAGE Publications. London, Thousand Oaks, and New Delhi, 2004). In this article I expand on this admonishment and demonstrate its utility in resolving the tension of prosecuting youth in criminal courts.
153. See Lynn M. Mather (1979) Plea Bargaining or Trial? The Process of Criminal-Case Disposition. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
154. Emile Durkheim (1958 [1895]) The Rules of Sociological Method, trans. S. A. Solvay and J. H. Mueller. Glencoe, IL: Free Press;
155. Durkheim (1984). One of the best illustrations of this principle is sociologist Kai T. Erikson's classic book, Wayward Puritans (1966) New York: John Wiley & Sons. Erikson uses the early Puritan settlers as a case study in how members of society seek punishment as a way to reaffirm a collective consciousness in times of struggle or doubt. By banishing Anne Hutchinson, torturing Quakers, and eventually hanging witches, early Massachusetts colonists reaffirmed their social rules and norms, and strengthened bonds with one another by directing communal wrath at common enemies.
156. Robert E. Shepherd, Jr. (1999) "Film at Eleven: The News Media and Juvenile Crime." Quinnipiac Law Review 18:687-700.
157. Donna Bishop and Charles Frazier (2000) "Consequences of Transfer." In Fagan and Zimring (2000);
158. M. A. Bortner (1986) "Traditional Rhetoric, Organizational Realities: Remand of Juveniles to Adult Court." Crime and Delinquency 32:53-73.
159. Singer (1996).
160. Donna M. Bishop and Charles E. Frazier (1988) "The Influence of Race in Juvenile Justice Processing." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 25:242-263;
161. Dale Dannefer and Russell K. Schutt (1982) "Race and Juvenile Justice Processing in Court and Police Agencies." American Journal of Sociology 87:1113-1132;
162. Miriam D. Sealock and Sally S. Simpson (1998) "Unraveling Bias in Arrest Decisions: The Role of Juvenile Offender Type-scripts." Justice Quarterly 15:417-457.
163. See generally, Grisso and Schwartz (2000);
164. Thomas Grisso (2000) "What We Know about Youths' Capacities as Trial Defendants." In Grisso and Schwartz (2000).
165. Richard E. Redding and Elizabeth J. Fuller (2004) "What Do Juvenile Offenders Know about Being Tried as Adults? Implications for Deterrence." Juvenile and Family Court Journal 55:35-45.
166. See James C. Howell (1996) "Juvenile Transfers to the Criminal Justice System: State of the Art." Law and Policy Review 18:17-60;
167. Mears and Field (2000);
168. Zimring (1998, 2000).
169. Sudnow (1965).
170. Celesta A. Albonetti (1991) "An Integration of Theories to Explain Judicial Discretion." Social Problems 38:247-266;
171. Cicourel (1968);
172. Emerson (1969);
173. Milton Heumann (1978) Plea Bargaining: The Experiences of Prosecutors, Judges and Defense Attorneys. Chicago: University of Chicago Press;
174. Sudnow (1965).
175. Eisenstein et al. (1988);
176. Emerson (1969);
177. Heumann (1978).
178. James Holstein (1988) "Court Ordered Incompetence: Conversational Organization in Involuntary Commitment Hearings." Social Problems 35:458-473.
179. In an analysis of court-ordered parenting classes taught by juvenile probation officers, Laurie Schaffner (1997), in "Families on Probation: Court-Ordered Parenting Skills Classes for Parents of Juvenile Offenders." Crime and Delinquency 43:412-437, shows that some parents accused of lacking parenting skills react by agreeing with probation officers that their children deserve to be punished for their misbehavior. Her illustration of how probation officers focus exclusively on discipline as a parenting technique resembles the reactions of juvenile court judges illustrated in the following transcripts.
180. Sudnow (1965);
181. Emerson (1969).
182. Emerson (1969).
183. See Franklin E. Zimring (1981) The Changing Legal World of Adolescence. New York: Free Press.
184. See also Lemert (1970);
185. Parker et al. (1981) have found similar results.
186. See Robert M. Emerson (1981) "On Last Resorts." American Journal of Sociology 87:1-22.
187. Sudnow (1965);
188. Emerson (1969).
189. Emerson (1981).
190. Criminal Justice Agency (2001); Criminal Justice Agency (2000) Annual Report on the Adult Court Case Processing of Juvenile Offenders in New York City, January through December 1999. New York: Criminal Justice Agency.
191. See Eisenstein et al. (1988).
192. Singer (1996).
193. Peter Greenwood, Allan Abrahamese, and Franklin Zimring (1984) Factors Affecting Sentence Severity for Young Adult Offenders. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corp.;
194. see also Kristine Kinder, Carol Veneziano, Michael Fichter, and Henry Azuma (1995) "A Comparison of the Dispositions of Juvenile Offenders Certified as Adults with Juvenile Offenders Not Certified." Juvenile and Family Court Journal 46:37-42;
195. Inger Sagatun, L. L. McCollum, and L. P. Edwards (1985) "The Effect of Transfers from Juvenile to Criminal Court: A Loglinear Analysis." Crime and Justice 8:65-92.
196. Bishop et al. (1996);
197. Joel Eigen (1981) "Punishing Youth Homicide Offenders In Philadelphia." Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 72:1072-1093;
198. Fagan (1996);
199. Eric J. Fritsch, Tory Caeti, and Craig Hemmens (1996) "Spare the Needle but Not the Punishment: The Incarceration of Waived Youth in Texas Prison." Crime and Delinquency 42:593-609;
200. Marilyn Houghtalin and G. Larry Mays (1991) "Criminal Dispositions of New Mexico Juveniles Transferred to Adult Court." Crime and Delinquency 37:393-407;
201. Lanza-Kaduce et al. (2002);
202. David L. Myers (2003) "Adult Crime, Adult Time: Punishing Violent Youth in the Adult Criminal Justice System." Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 1:173-197;
203. Podkopacz and Feld (1996);
204. Cary Rudman, Eliot Hartstone, Jeffrey Fagan, and Melinda Moore (1986) "Violent Youth in Adult Court: Process and Punishment." Crime and Delinquency 32:75-96;
205. Kevin Strom, Steven Smith, and Howard Snyder (1998) Juvenile Felony Defendants in Criminal Courts. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice;
206. Winner et al. (1997); for a review
207. see Kupchik et al. (2003).
208. Feld (1999);
209. Zimring (1998).
210. See Mears and Field (2000).
211. See Emerson (1981).
212. In a separate work, I describe how juvenile court actors achieve a balance between goals of punishment and rehabilitation through a negotiated order. See Aaron Kupchik (2005) "Punishing to Protect? Balancing Punishment and Future Welfare in Juvenile Court." In Ethnographies of Law and Social Control: Sociology of Crime, Law and Deviance, Vol. 6, ed. Stacy Burns. New York: Elsevier.
213. Rothman (1980).
214. See Kupchik (2004).
215. Darrell Steffensmeier and Steven Demuth (2000) "Ethnicity and Sentencing Outcomes in U.S. Federal Courts: Who Is Punished More Harshly?" American Sociological Review 65:705-729;
216. see also Darrell Steffensmeier, Jeffery Ulmer, and John Kramer (1998) "The Interaction of Race, Gender, and Age in Criminal Sentencing: The Punishment Cost of Being Young, Black, and Male." Criminology 36:763-798.
217. Megan C. Kurlychek and Brian D. Johnson (2004) "The Juvenile Penalty: A Comparison of Juvenile and Young Adult Sentencing Outcomes in Criminal Court." Criminology 42:485-517.
218. See Steffensmeier et al. (1998);
219. Darrell Steffensmeier and Steven Deumth (2001) "Ethnicity and Judge's Sentencing Decisions: Hispanic-Black-White Comparisons." Criminology 39:145-178.
220. DiFrancesco (1980);
221. Alfred E. Regnery (1986) "A Federal Perspective on Juvenile Justice Reform." Crime and Delinquency 32:39-51;
222. Wilson (2000).
223. This pattern resembles what science and technology studies scholar Torin Monahan has called "fragmented centralization": the centralization of decision making and decentralization of accountability and inflexibility brought about by contemporary public policy making. In this case, sentencing decisions are somewhat fixed by policy makers, yet the accountability and inflexibility is distributed to judges, defendants, and courtroom workgroups; see Torin Monahan (2005) Globalization, Technological Change, and Public Education. New York: Routledge.
224. These contextual features are consistent with the types of local organizational variables that scholars such as Eisenstein et al. (1988) find to be important predictors of courts' actions.
225. Feld (1998, 2000).
226. Feld (1998).
227. E.g., Eisenstein et al. (1988);
228. Flemming et al. (1992);
229. Nardulli et al. (1988);
230. Ulmer (1997).
231. Ulmer (1997).
232. E.g., Dixon (1995);
233. Rodney L. Engen and Sara Steen (2000) "The Power to Punish: Discretion and Sentencing Reform in the War on Drugs." American Journal of Sociology 105:1357-95;
234. Ulmer and Kramer (1996, 1998).
235. Savelsberg (1992).
236. Mears (2001).
237. Garland (2001).
238. Neil Postman (1982) The Disappearance of Childhood. New York: Vintage Books.
239. See also Peter Applebome (1998) "No Room for Children in a World of Little Adults." New York Times, May 10, 1998, sec. 4, p. 1;
240. David Elkind (1981) The Hurried Child. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
241. Allison James and Chris Jencks (1996), in "Public Perceptions of Childhood Criminality," British Journal of Sociology 47:315-331, consider a similar offense in Britain, the murder of Jamie Bulger in 1993, and how it led to similar shifts in popular conceptions of childhood.
242. See also Jeffrey A. Butts and Adele V. Harrell (1998) Delinquents or Criminals: Policy Options for Young Offenders. Washington, DC: Urban Institute;
243. Dana Canedy (2002) "Boys' Case Is Used in Bid to Limit Trials of Minors as Adults." New York Times, October 6, 2002;
244. Simona Ghetti and Allison D. Redlich (2001) "Reactions to Youth Crime: Perceptions of Accountability and Competence." Behavioral Sciences and the Law 19:33-52;
245. Ann Patchett (2002) "The Age of Innocence." New York Times Magazine, September 29, 2002, p. 17.
246. Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr., Sheela Kennedy, Vonnie C. McLoyd, Ruben G. Rumbaut, and Richard A. Settersten, Jr. (2004) "Growing Up Is Harder to Do." Contexts 3:33-41, p. 37.
247. See also Patricia Passuth Lynott and Barbara J. Logue (1993) "The 'Hurried Child': The Myth of Lost Childhood in Contemporary American Society." Sociological Forum 8:471-491.
248. Feld (1999).
249. Robert J. Sampson and John H. Laub (1993) "Structural Variations in Juvenile Court Processing: Inequality, the Underclass, and Social Control." Law and Society Review 21:285-311.
250. Mark Soler (2001) Public Opinion on Youth, Crime and Race: A Guide for Advocates. Washington, DC: Youth Law Center.
251. Soler (2001);
252. see also Melissa M. Moon, Jody L. Sundt, Francis T. Cullen, and John Paul Wright (2000) "Is Child Saving Dead? Public Support for Juvenile Rehabilitation." Crime and Delinquency 46:38-60.
253. Stalans and Henry (1994).
254. Soler (2001).
255. George Bridges and Sara Steen (1998) "Racial Disparities in Official Assessments of Juvenile Offenders: Attributional Stereotypes as Mediating Mechanisms." American Sociological Review 63:554-570.
256. Bishop and Frazier (1988);
257. Michael J. Leiber and Katherine M. Jamieson (1995) "Race and Decision Making within Juvenile Justice: The Importance of Context." Journal of Quantitative Criminology 11:363-388;
258. Michael J. Leiber and Jayne M. Stairs (1999) "Race, Contexts, and the Use of Intake Diversion." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 36:56-86;
259. Sealock and Simpson (1998).
260. Richard E. Redding and Bruce Arrigo (2005) "Multicultural Perspectives on Delinquency among African-American Youth: Etiology and Intervention." In Craig L. Frisby and Cecil R. Reynolds (eds.), Comprehensive Handbook of Multicultural School Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
261. David Huizinga and Delbert S. Elliott (1987) "Juvenile Offenders: Prevalence, Offender Incidence, and Arrest Rates by Race." Crime and Delinquency 33:206-223.
262. See Bishop and Frazier (1988);
263. Dannefer and Schutt (1982).
264. See Meda Chesney-Lind (1977) "Judicial Paternalism and the Female Status Offender: Training Women to Know Their Place." Crime and Delinquency 23:121-130;
265. Meda Chesney-Lind and Randall G. Shelden (1998) Girls, Delinquency, and Juvenile Justice, 2nd ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks and Cole.
266. Howard N. Snyder (2004) Juvenile Arrests 2002. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
267. See Marlene M. Moretti, Candice L. Odgers, and Margaret A. Jackson (eds.) (2004) Girls and Aggression: Contributing Factors and Intervention Principles. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
268. Bishop and Frazier (1988).
269. Garland (2001).
270. See Singer (1996).
271. Zimring (2000, p. 208).
272. Fagan and Zimring (2000).
273. See Bishop et al. (1996);
274. Fagan (1996);
275. Jeffrey Fagan, Aaron Kupchik, and Akiva Liberman (2003) "Be Careful What You Wish For: The Comparative Impacts of Juvenile versus Criminal Court Sanctions on Recidivism among Adolescent Felony Offenders." Final Grant Report to Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention;
276. Jensen and Metsger (1994);
277. Myers (2001);
278. Podkopacz and Feld (1996);
279. Risler (1998);
280. Singer (1996);
281. Singer and MacDowall (1988);
282. Winner et al. (1997).
283. Martin Forst, Jeffrey Fagan, and T. Scott Vivona (1989) "Youth in Prison and Training Schools: Perceptions and Consequences of the Treatment Custody Dichotomy." Juvenile and Family Court Journal 40:1-14;
284. Jodi Lane, Lonn Lanza-Kaduce, Charles E. Frazier, and Donna M. Bishop (2002) "Adult versus Juvenile Sanctions: Voices of Incarcerated Youths." Crime and Delinquency 48:431-455.
285. Bortner et al. (2000).
286. See Garland (2001).
287. Labeling theory argues that delinquency is often exacerbated by crime control initiatives, as juveniles self-identify with the label of delinquent they receive upon arrest; see Edwin Schur (1971) Labeling Deviant Behavior: Its Sociological Implications. New York: Harper & Row.
288. Zimring (2000, p. 210).
289. Tanenhaus (2004).
290. See Donna M. Bishop, Charles E. Frazier, and John C. Henretta (1989) "Prosecutorial Waiver: Case Study of a Questionable Reform." Crime and Delinquency 35:179-201;
291. Bishop and Frazier (1991);
292. Barry C. Feld (2000) "Legislative Exclusion of Offenses from Juvenile Court Jurisdiction: A History and Critique." In Fagan and Zimring (2000).
293. Singer (1996).
294. Richard E. Redding and James C. Howell (2000) "Blended Sentencing in American Juvenile Courts." In Fagan and Zimring (2000).
295. See Marcy R. Podcopacz (1998) "A First Look at Blended Sentencing: Extended Juvenile Jurisdiction in Hennepin County, Minnesota." Paper pre- sented at the American Society of Criminology annual meeting, November 1998, Washington, DC;
296. Redding and Howell (2000).
297. Zimring (2000).
298. Feld (1999);
299. see also Janet E. Ainsworth (1991) "Re-imagining Childhood and Re-constructing the Legal Order: The Case for Abolishing the Juvenile Court." North Carolina Law Review 69:1083-1133.
300. Feld (1999, p. 287).
301. Feld (1999).
302. See Aaron Kupchik (in press) "The Decision to Incarcerate in Juvenile and Criminal Courts." Criminal Justice Review, copyright 2006 by Sage Publications.
303. See Aaron Kupchik (2003) "Prosecuting Adolescents in Criminal Courts: Criminal or Juvenile Justice?" Social Problems 50: 439-460 (© 2003 by Society for the Study of Social Problems, Inc.);
304. Kupchik (2004).
305. Cicourel (1968);
306. Emerson (1969);
307. see also Bortner (1982).
308. See Mather (1979).
309. Mather (1979).
310. Holstein (1988);
311. see also J. Maxwell Atkinson and Paul Drew (1979) Order in Court: The Organization of Verbal Interaction in Judicial Settings. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.
312. John Lofland and Lyn H. Lofland (1984) Analyzing Social Settings: A Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
313. See Robert M. Emerson, Rachel I. Fretz, and Linda L. Shaw (1995) Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
314. Richard A. Berk (1983) "An Introduction to Sample Selection Bias in Sociological Data." American Sociological Review 48:386-398.
315. Kenneth Adams (1983) "The Effect of Evidentiary Factors on Charge Reduction." Journal of Criminal Justice 11:525-537;
316. David Rauma (1984) "Going for the Gold: Prosecutorial Decision-Making in Cases of Wife Assault." Social Science Research 13:321-351;
317. Vera Institute of Justice (1977) Felony Arrests: Their Prosecution and Disposition in New York City's Courts. New York: Vera Institute of Justice.
318. Chesney-Lind (1977);
319. Chesney-Lind and Shelden (1998).
320. Akiva Liberman, Laura Winterfield, and Jerome McElroy (1996) Minority Over-Representation among Juveniles in New York City's Adult and Juvenile Court Systems during Fiscal Year 1992. New York: New York City Criminal Justice Agency.