The decline of moths in Great Britain: A review of possible causes

Insect Conservation and Diversity

Volumn 6, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 5-19

  Fox, Richard ^a  

^a BUTTERFLY CONSERVATION   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Biodiversity conservation; Climate change; Habitat degradation; Light pollution; Macro moths; Population trends

Indexed keywords

EID: 84872800914     PISSN: 1752458X     EISSN: 17524598     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-4598.2012.00186.x     Document Type: Article

References (193)

1. Altermatt, F. (2010) Climatic warming increases voltinism in European butterflies and moths. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 277, 1281-1287.
2. van Asch, M., van Tienderen, P.H., Holleman, L.J. & Visser, M.E. (2007) Predicting adaptation of phenology in response to climate change, an insect herbivore example. Global Change Biology, 13, 1596-1604.
3. Asher, J., Warren, M., Fox, R., Harding, P., Jeffcoate, G. & Jeffcoate, S. (2001) The Millennium Atlas of Butterflies in Britain and Ireland. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
4. Bálint, M., Domisch, S., Engelhardt, C.H.M., Haase, P., Lehrian, S., Sauer, J., Theissinger, K., Pauls, S.U. & Nowak, C. (2011) Cryptic biodiversity loss linked to global climate change. Nature Climate Change, 1, 313-318.
5. Balmer, O. & Erhardt, A. (2000) Consequences of succession on extensively grazed grasslands for central European butterfly communities: rethinking conservation practices. Conservation Biology, 14, 746-757.
6. Balmford, A. & Bond, W. (2005) Trends in the state of nature and their implications for human well being. Ecology Letters, 8, 1218-1234.
7. Benton, T.G., Bryant, D.M., Cole, L. & Crick, H.Q.P. (2002) Linking agricultural practice to insect and bird populations: a historical study over three decades. Journal of Applied Ecology, 39, 673-687.
8. Benton, T.G., Vickery, J.A. & Wilson, J.D. (2003) Farmland biodiversity: is habitat heterogeneity the key?Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 18, 182-188.
9. Bergerot, B., Julliard, R. & Baguette, M. (2010) Metacommunity dynamics: decline of functional relationship along a habitat fragmentation gradient. PLoS One, 5, e11294.
10. Betzholtz, P.-E. & Franzén, M. (2011) Mobility is related to species traits in noctuid moths. Ecological Entomology, 36, 369-376.
11. Biesmeijer, J.C., Roberts, S.P.M., Reemer, M., Ohlemüller, R., Edwards, M., Peeters, T., Schaffers, A.P., Potts, S.G., Kleukers, R., Thomas, C.D., Settele, J. & Kunin, W.E. (2006) Parallel declines in pollinators and insect-pollinated plants in Britain and the Netherlands. Science, 313, 351-354.
12. Bignal, E.M. & McCracken, D.I. (1996) Low-intensity farming systems in the conservation of the countryside. Journal of Applied Ecology, 33, 413-424.
13. Bobbink, R., Hornung, M. & Roelofs, J.G.M. (1998) The effects of air-borne nitrogen pollutants on species diversity in natural and semi-natural European vegetation. Journal of Ecology, 86, 717-738.
14. Both, C., van Asch, M., Bijlsma, R., van den Berg, A.B. & Visser, M.E. (2009) Climate change and unequal phenological changes across four trophic levels: constraints or adaptations?Journal of Animal Ecology, 78, 73-83.
15. Bourn, N.A.D. & Thomas, J.A. (2002) The challenge of conserving grassland insects at the margins of their range in Europe. Biological Conservation, 104, 285-292.
16. Brereton, T., Roy, D.B., Middlebrook, I., Botham, M. & Warren, M. (2011) The development of butterfly indicators in the United Kingdom and assessments in 2010. Journal of Insect Conservation, 15, 139-151.
17. Brereton, T.M., Warren, M.S., Roy, D.B. & Stewart, K. (2008) The changing status of the Chalkhill Blue butterfly Polyommatus coridon in the UK: the impacts of conservation policies and environmental factors. Journal of Insect Conservation, 12, 629-638.
18. Brook, B.W., Sodhi, N.S. & Bradshaw, C.J.A. (2008) Synergies among extinction drivers under global change. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 23, 453-460.
19. Brooks, T.M., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., Da Fonseca, G.A.B., Rylands, A.B., Konstant, W.R., Flick, P., Pilgrim, J., Oldfield, S., Magin, G. & Hilton-Taylor, C. (2002) Habitat loss and extinction in the hotspots of biodiversity. Conservation Biology, 16, 909-923.
20. Broome, A., Clarke, S., Peace, A. & Parsons, M. (2011) The effect of coppice management on moth assemblages in an English woodland. Biodiversity and Conservation, 20, 729-749.
21. Brown, P.M.J., Frost, R., Doberski, J., Sparks, T., Harrington, R. & Roy, H.E. (2011) Decline in native ladybirds in response to the arrival of Harmonia axyridis: early evidence from England. Ecological Entomology, 36, 231-240.
22. Brown, P.M.J., Roy, H.E., Rothery, P., Roy, D.B., Ware, R.L. & Majerus, M.E.N. (2008) Harmonia axyridis in Great Britain: analysis of the spread and distribution of a non-native coccinellid. BioControl, 53, 55-68.
23. Bruce-White, C. & Shardlow, M. (2011) A Review of the Impact of Artificial Light on Invertebrates. Buglife, Peterborough, UK.
24. Bulman, C.R., Wilson, R.J., Holt, A.R., Gálvez Bravo, L., Early, R.I., Warren, M.S. & Thomas, C.D. (2007) Minimum viable metapopulation size, extinction debt, and the conservation of a declining species. Ecological Applications, 17, 1460-1473.
25. Burghardt, K.T., Tallamy, D.W., Philips, C. & Shropshire, K.J. (2010) Non-native plants reduce abundance, richness, and host specialization in lepidopteran communities. Ecosphere, 1, article 11, 1-22.
26. Butchart, S.H.M., Walpole, M., Collen, B., van Strien, A., Scharlemann, J.P.W., Almond, R.E.A., Baillie, J.E.M., Bomhard, B., Brown, C., Bruno, J., Carpenter, K.E., Carr, G.M., Chanson, J., Chenery, A.M., Csirke, J., Davidson, N.C., Dentener, F., Foster, M., Galli, A., Galloway, J.N., Genovesi, P., Gregory, R.D., Hockings, M., Kapos, V., Lamarque, J.-F., Leverington, F., Loh, J., McGeoch, M.A., McRae, L., Minasyan, A., Hernández Morcillo, M., Oldfield, T.E.E., Pauly, D., Quader, S., Revenga, C., Sauer, J.R., Skolnik, B., Spear, D., Stanwell-Smith, D., Stuart, S.N., Symes, A., Tierney, M., Tyrrell, T.D., Vié, J.-C. & Watson, R. (2010) Global biodiversity: indicators of recent declines. Science, 328, 1164-1168.
27. Cameron, S.A., Lozier, J.D., Strange, J.P., Koch, J.B., Cordes, N., Solter, L.F. & Griswold, T.L. (2011) Patterns of widespread decline in North American bumble bees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 662-667.
28. Carey, P.D., Wallis, S.M., Emmett, B.E., Maskell, L.C., Murphy, J., Norton, L.R., Simpson, I.C. & Smart, S.S. (2008) Countryside Survey: UK Headline Messages from 2007. Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Lancaster, UK.
29. Chapman, J.W., Drake, V.A. & Reynolds, D.R. (2011) Recent insights from radar studies of insect flight. Annual Review of Entomology, 56, 337-356.
30. Chen, I.-C., Hill, J.K., Ohlemüller, R., Roy, D.B. & Thomas, C.D. (2011) Rapid range shifts of species associated with high levels of climate warming. Science, 333, 1024-1026.
31. Clarke, S.A., Green, D.G., Bourn, N.A. & Hoare, D.J. (2011) Woodland Management for Butterflies and Moths: A Best Practice Guide. Butterfly Conservation, Wareham, UK.
32. Conrad, K.F., Fox, R. & Woiwod, I.P. (2007) Monitoring biodiversity: measuring long-term changes in insect abundance. Insect Conservation Biology (ed. by A.J.A. Stewart, T.R. New and O.T. Lewis), pp. 203-225. CABI publishing, Wallingford, UK.
33. Conrad, K.F., Warren, M., Fox, R., Parsons, M. & Woiwod, I.P. (2006) Rapid declines of common, widespread British moths provide evidence of an insect biodiversity crisis. Biological Conservation, 132, 279-291.
34. Conrad, K.F., Woiwod, I.P., Parsons, M., Fox, R. & Warren, M. (2004) Long-term population trends in widespread British moths. Journal of Insect Conservation, 8, 119-136.
35. Conrad, K.F., Woiwod, I.P. & Perry, J.N. (2002) Long-term decline in abundance and distribution of the garden tiger moth (Arctia caja) in Great Britain. Biological Conservation, 106, 329-337.
36. Davies, Z.G., Wilson, R.J., Coles, S. & Thomas, C.D. (2006) Changing habitat associations of a thermally constrained species, the silver-spotted skipper butterfly, in response to climate warming. Journal of Animal Ecology, 75, 247-256.
37. Devoto, M., Bailey, S. & Memmott, J. (2011) The 'night-shift': nocturnal pollen-transport networks in a boreal pine forest. Ecological Entomology, 36, 25-35.
38. Diamond, J.M., Ashmole, N.P. & Purves, P.E. (1989) The present, past and future of human-caused extinctions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 325, 469-477.
39. Dirzo, R. & Raven, P.H. (2003) Global state of biodiversity and loss. Annual Review of Environmental Resources, 28, 137-167.
40. Donald, P.F., Green, R.E. & Heath, M.F. (2001) Agricultural intensification and the collapse of Europe's farmland bird populations. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 268, 25-29.
41. Dunn, R.R. (2005) Modern insect extinctions, the neglected majority. Conservation Biology, 19, 1030-1036.
42. Eisenbeis, G. (2006) Artificial night lighting and insects: attraction of insects to streetlamps in a rural setting in Germany. Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting (ed. by C. Rich and T. Longcore), pp. 281-304. Island Press, Washington, District of Columbia.
43. Fahrig, L. (2003) Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 34, 487-515.
44. Feber, R.E., Smith, H. & Macdonald, D.W. (1996) The effects on butterfly abundance of the management of uncropped edges of arable fields. Journal of Applied Ecology, 33, 1191-1205.
45. Fitzpatrick, U., Murray, T.E., Paxton, R.J. & Brown, M.J.F. (2007) Building on IUCN regional Red Lists to produce lists of species of conservation priority: a model with Irish bees. Conservation Biology, 21, 1324-1332.
46. Fletcher, C.H. (2006) Changes in the behaviour of double-brooded macro moths in Yorkshire. Entomologist's Record and Journal of Variation, 118, 105-113.
47. Fletcher, C.H. (2009) The effects of climatic warming on flight time of moths in Yorkshire. Entomologist's Record and Journal of Variation, 121, 109-118.
48. Fox, R., Asher, J., Brereton, T., Roy, D. & Warren, M. (2006a) The State of Butterflies in Britain and Ireland. Pisces Publications, Newbury, UK.
49. Fox, R., Brereton, T.M., Roy, D.B., Asher, J. & Warren, M.S. (2011a) The State of the UK's Butterflies 2011. Butterfly Conservation and the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wareham, Dorset, UK.
50. Fox, R., Conrad, K.F., Parsons, M.S., Warren, M.S. & Woiwod, I.P. (2006b) The State of Britain's Larger Moths. Butterfly Conservation and Rothamsted Research, Wareham, UK.
51. Fox, R., Conrad, K.F., Parsons, M.S., Warren, M.S. & Woiwod, I.P. (2010) Moths. Silent Summer: The State of the Wildlife in Britain and Ireland (ed. by N. Maclean), pp. 448-470. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
52. Fox, R., Randle, Z., Hill, L., Anders, S., Wiffen, L. & Parsons, M.S. (2011b) Moths Count: recording moths for conservation in the UK. Journal of Insect Conservation, 15, 55-68.
53. Franco, A.M.A., Hill, J.K., Kitschke, C., Collingham, Y.C., Roy, D.B., Fox, R., Huntley, B. & Thomas, C.D. (2006) Impacts of climate warming and habitat loss on extinctions at species' low-latitude range boundaries. Global Change Biology, 12, 1545-1553.
54. Frank, K.D. (2006) Effects of artificial night lighting on moths. Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting (ed. by C. Rich and T. Longcore), pp. 305-344. Island Press, Washington, District of Columbia.
55. Franzén, M. & Johannesson, M. (2007) Predicting extinction risk of butterflies and moths (Macrolepidoptera) from distribution patterns and species characteristics. Journal of Insect Conservation, 11, 367-390.
56. Franzén, M. & Nilsson, S.G. (2007) What is the minimum landscape size for dispersal studies?Journal of Animal Ecology, 76, 1224-1230.
57. Freemark, K.E. & Boutin, C. (1995) Impacts of agricultural herbicide use on terrestrial wildlife in temperate landscapes: a review with special reference to North America. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 52, 67-91.
58. Fuentes-Montemayor, E., Goulson, D. & Park, K. (2011) The effectiveness of agri-environment schemes for the conservation of farmland moths: assessing the importance of a landscape-scale management approach. Journal of Applied Ecology, 48, 532-542.
59. Fuller, R.J., Noble, D.G., Smith, K.W. & Vanhinsbergh, D. (2005) Recent declines in populations of woodland birds in Britain: a review of possible causes. British Birds, 98, 116-143.
60. Gabriel, D., Sait, S.M., Hodgson, J.A., Schmutz, U., Kunin, W.E. & Benton, T.G. (2010) Scale matters: the impact of organic farming on biodiversity at different spatial scales. Ecology Letters, 13, 858-869.
61. Gaston, K.J. & Evans, K.L. (2010) Urbanisation and development. Silent summer: The State of the Wildlife in Britain and Ireland (ed. by N. Maclean), pp. 72-83. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
62. Gibbs, K.E., Mackey, R.L. & Currie, D.J. (2009) Human land use, agriculture, pesticides and losses of imperiled species. Diversity and Distributions, 15, 242-253.
63. Goulson, D., Lye, G.C. & Darvill, B. (2008) Decline and conservation of bumble bees. Annual Review of Entomology, 53, 191-208.
64. Green, R.E., Cornell, S.J., Scharlemann, J.P.W. & Balmford, A. (2005) Farming and the fate of wild nature. Science, 307, 550-555.
65. Gregory, R.D., Willis, S.G., Jiguet, F., Voříšek, P., Klvaňová, A., van Strien, A., Huntley, B., Collingham, Y.C., Couvet, D. & Green, R.E. (2009) An indicator of the impact of climatic change on European bird populations. PLoS One, 4, e4678.
66. Gripenberg, S., Hamer, N., Brereton, T., Roy, D.B. & Lewis, O.T. (2011) A novel parasitoid and a declining butterfly: cause or coincidence?Ecological Entomology, 36, 271-281.
67. Groenendijk, D. & Ellis, W.N. (2011) The state of the Dutch larger moth fauna. Journal of Insect Conservation, 15, 95-101.
68. Groenendijk, D. & van der Meulen, J. (2004) Conservation of moths in The Netherlands: population trends, distribution patterns and monitoring techniques of day-flying moths. Journal of Insect Conservation, 8, 109-118.
69. Gurevitch, J. & Padilla, D.K. (2004) Are invasive species a major cause of extinctions?Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 19, 470-474.
70. Haaland, C., Naisbit, R.E. & Bersier, L.-F. (2011) Sown wildflower strips for insect conservation: a review. Insect Conservation and Diversity, 4, 60-80.
71. Halada, L., Evans, D., Romão, C. & Petersen, J.-E. (2011) Which habitats of European importance depend on agricultural practices?Biodiversity and Conservation, 20, 2365-2378.
72. Hambler, C. & Speight, M.R. (2004) Extinction rates and butterflies. Science, 305, 1563.
73. Hanski, I. & Pöyry, J. (2007) Insect populations in fragmented habitats. Insect Conservation Biology (ed. by A.J.A. Stewart, T.R. New and O.T. Lewis), pp. 175-202. CABI, Wallingford, UK.
74. Hartley, S.E. & Mitchell, R.J. (2005) Manipulation of nutrients and grazing levels on heather moorland: changes in Calluna dominance and consequences for community composition. Journal of Ecology, 93, 990-1004.
75. Hickling, R., Roy, D.B., Hill, J.K., Fox, R. & Thomas, C.D. (2006) The distributions of a wide range of taxonomic groups are expanding polewards. Global Change Biology, 12, 450-455.
76. Hickling, R., Roy, D.B., Hill, J.K. & Thomas, C.D. (2005) A northward shift of range margins in British Odonata. Global Change Biology, 11, 502-506.
77. Hill, J.K., Thomas, C.D., Fox, R., Telfer, M.G., Willis, S.G., Asher, J. & Huntley, B. (2002) Responses of butterflies to 20th century climate warming: implications for future ranges. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 269, 2163-2171.
78. Hodgson, J.A., Kunin, W.E., Thomas, C.D., Benton, T.G. & Gabriel, D. (2010) Comparing organic farming and land sparing: optimizing yield and butterfly populations at a landscape scale. Ecology Letters, 13, 1358-1367.
79. Hodgson, J.A., Thomas, C.D., Wintle, B.A. & Moilanen, A. (2009) Climate change, connectivity and conservation decision making: back to basics. Journal of Applied Ecology, 46, 964-969.
80. Holt, C.A., Fuller, R.J. & Dolman, P.M. (2011) Breeding and post-breeding responses of woodland birds to modification of habitat structure by deer. Biological Conservation, 144, 2151-2162.
81. Invertebrate Link (JCCBI) (2002) A code of conduct for collecting insects and other invertebrates. British Journal of Entomology and Natural History, 15, 1-6.
82. Jackson, J.B.C., Kirby, M.X., Berger, W.H., Bjorndal, K.A., Botsford, L.W., Bourque, B.J., Bradbury, R.H., Cooke, R., Erlandson, J., Estes, J.A., Hughes, T.P., Kidwell, S., Lange, C.B., Lenihan, H.S., Pandolfi, J.M., Peterson, C.H., Steneck, R.S., Tegner, M.J. & Warner, R.R. (2001) Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science, 293, 629-637.
83. Kleijn, D., Kohler, F., Báldi, A., Batáry, P., Concepción, E.D., Clough, Y., Díaz, M., Gabriel, D., Holzschuh, A., Knop, E., Kovács, A., Marshall, E.J.P., Tscharntke, T. & Verhulst, J. (2009) On the relationship between farmland biodiversity and land-use intensity in Europe. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 276, 903-909.
84. Kleijn, D., Rundlöf, M., Scheper, J., Smith, H.G. & Tscharntke, T. (2011) Does conservation on farmland contribute to halting the biodiversity decline?Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 26, 474-481.
85. Koh, L.P., Sodhi, N.S. & Brook, B.W. (2004) Ecological correlates of extinction proneness in tropical butterflies. Conservation Biology, 18, 1571-1578.
86. Kosior, A., Celary, W., Olejnikzak, P., Fijal, J., Krol, W., Solarz, W. & Plonka, P. (2007) The decline of the bumble bees and cuckoo bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Bombini) of Western and Central Europe. Oryx, 41, 79-88.
87. Lack, A. (2010) Plant introductions. Silent Summer: The State of the Wildlife in Britain and Ireland (ed. by N. Maclean), pp. 53-71. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
88. van Langevelde, F., Ettema, J.A., Donners, M., WallisDeVries, M.F. & Groenendijk, D. (2011) Effect of spectral composition of artificial light on the attraction of moths. Biological Conservation, 144, 2274-2281.
89. Lever, C. (2010) Vertebrate animal introductions. Silent Summer: The State of the Wildlife in Britain and Ireland (ed. by N. Maclean), pp. 36-52. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
90. Littlewood, N.A. (2008) Grazing impacts on moth diversity and abundance on a Scottish upland estate. Insect Conservation and Diversity, 1, 151-160.
91. Longcore, T. & Rich, C. (2004) Ecological light pollution. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2, 191-198.
92. Longley, M. & Sotherton, N.W. (1997) Factors determining the effects of pesticides upon butterflies inhabiting arable farmland. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 61, 1-12.
93. Loram, A., Warren, P.H. & Gaston, K.J. (2008) Urban domestic gardens (XIV): the characteristics of gardens in five cities. Environmental Management, 42, 361-376.
94. Mack, R.N., Simberloff, D., Lonsdale, W.M., Evans, H., Clout, M. & Bazzaz, F.A. (2000) Biotic invasions: causes, epidemiology, global consequences, and control. Ecological Applications, 10, 689-710.
95. Maclean, I.M.D. & Wilson, R.J. (2011) Recent ecological responses to climate change support predictions of high extinction risk. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 12337-12342.
96. Maes, D., Titeux, N., Hortal, J., Anselin, A., Decleer, K., De Knijf, G., Fichefet, V. & Luoto, M. (2010) Predicted insect diversity declines under climate change in an already impoverished region. Journal of Insect Conservation, 14, 95-101.
97. Maes, D. & Van Dyck, H. (2001) Butterfly diversity loss in Flanders (north Belgium): Europe's worst case scenario?Biological Conservation, 99, 485-498.
98. Majerus, M.E.N. (2002) Moths. HarperCollins, London, UK.
99. Mallet, J., Wynne, I.R. & Thomas, C.D. (2011) Hybridisation and climate change: brown argus butterflies in Britain (Polyommatus subgenus Aricia). Insect Conservation and Diversity, 4, 192-199.
100. Manchester, S.J. & Bullock, J.M. (2000) The impacts of non-native species on UK biodiversity and the effectiveness of control. Journal of Applied Ecology, 37, 845-864.
101. Mattila, N., Kaitala, V., Komonen, A., Kotiaho, J.S. & Päivinen, J. (2006) Ecological determinants of distribution decline and risk of extinction in moths. Conservation Biology, 20, 1161-1168.
102. Mattila, N., Kotiaho, J.S., Kaitala, V. & Komonen, A. (2008) The use of ecological traits in extinction risk assessments: a case study on geometrid moths. Biological Conservation, 141, 2322-2328.
103. May, R.M. (2010) Ecological science and tomorrow's world. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 365, 41-47.
104. McGeoch, M.A., Butchart, S.H.M., Spear, D., Marais, E., Kleynhans, E.J., Symes, A., Chanson, J. & Hoffmann, M. (2010) Global indicators of biological invasion: species numbers, biodiversity impact and policy responses. Diversity and Distributions, 16, 95-108.
105. McKinney, M.L. (1999) High rates of extinction and threat in poorly studied taxa. Conservation Biology, 13, 1273-1281.
106. McKinney, M.L. (2008) Effects of urbanization on species richness: a review of plants and animals. Urban Ecosystems, 11, 161-176.
107. McLaughlin, A. & Mineau, P. (1995) The impact of agricultural practices on biodiversity. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 55, 201-212.
108. Menéndez, R., González-Megías, A., Collingham, Y., Fox, R., Roy, D.B., Ohlemüller, R. & Thomas, C.D. (2007) Direct and indirect effects of climate and habitat factors on specialist and generalist butterfly diversity. Ecology, 88, 605-611.
109. Merckx, T., Feber, R.E., Dulieu, R.L., Townsend, M.C., Parsons, M.S., Bourn, N.A.D., Riordan, P. & Macdonald, D.W. (2009a) Effect of field margins on moths depends on species mobility: field-based evidence for landscape-scale conservation. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 129, 302-309.
110. Merckx, T., Feber, R.E., Mclaughlan, C., Bourn, N.A.D., Parsons, M.S., Townsend, M.C., Riordan, P. & Macdonald, D.W. (2010a) Shelter benefits less mobile moth species: the field-scale effect of hedgerow trees. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 138, 147-151.
111. Merckx, T., Feber, R.E., Parsons, M.S., Bourn, N.A.D., Townsend, M.C., Riordan, P. & Macdonald, D.W. (2010b) Habitat preference and mobility of Polia bombycina: are non-tailored agri-environment schemes any good for a rare and localised species?Journal of Insect Conservation, 14, 499-510.
112. Merckx, T., Feber, R.E., Riordan, P., Townsend, M.C., Bourn, N.A.D., Parsons, M.S. & Macdonald, D.W. (2009b) Optimizing the biodiversity gain from agri-environment schemes. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 130, 177-182.
113. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, District of Columbia.
114. Mitterböck, F. & Fuhrer, E. (1988) Effects of fluoride-polluted spruce leaves on nun moth caterpillars (Lymantria monacha). Journal of Applied Entomology, 105, 19-27.
115. Mooney, H.A. (2010) The ecosystem-service chain and the biological diversity crisis. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 365, 31-39.
116. Morecroft, M.D., Bealey, C.E., Beaumont, D.A., Benham, S., Brooks, D.R., Burt, T.P., Critchley, C.N.R., Dick, J., Littlewood, N.A., Monteith, D.T., Scott, W.A., Smith, R.I., Walmsley, C. & Watson, H. (2009) The UK Environmental Change Network: emerging trends in the composition of plant and animal communities and the physical environment. Biological Conservation, 142, 2814-2832.
117. Nieminen, M. (1996) Migration of moth species in a network of small islands. Oecologia, 108, 643-651.
118. Nieminen, M., Rita, H. & Uuvana, P. (1999) Body size and migration rate in moths. Ecography, 22, 697-707.
119. Nilsson, S.G., Franzén, M. & Jönsson, E. (2008) Long-term land-use changes and extinction of specialised butterflies. Insect Conservation and Diversity, 1, 197-207.
120. Öckinger, E., Hammarstedt, O., Nilsson, S.G. & Smith, H.G. (2006) The relationship between local extinctions of grassland butterflies and increased soil nitrogen levels. Biological Conservation, 128, 564-573.
121. Öckinger, E., Schweiger, O., Crist, T.O., Debinski, D.M., Krauss, J., Kuussaari, M., Petersen, J.D., Pöyry, J., Settele, J., Summerville, K.S. & Bommarco, R. (2010) Life-history traits predict species responses to habitat area and isolation: a cross-continental synthesis. Ecology Letters, 13, 969-979.
122. Ohlemüller, R., Anderson, B.J., Araújo, M.B., Butchart, S.H.M., Kudrna, O., Ridgely, R.S. & Thomas, C.D. (2008) The coincidence of climatic and species rarity: high risk to small-range species from climate change. Biology Letters, 4, 568-572.
123. van Ooik, T. & Rantala, M.J. (2010) Local adaptation of an insect herbivore to a heavy metal contaminated environment. Annales Zoologici Fennici, 47, 215-222.
124. van Ooik, T., Rantala, M.J. & Saloniemi, I. (2007) Diet-mediated effects of heavy metal pollution on growth and immune response in the geometrid moth Epirrita autumnata. Environmental Pollution, 145, 348-354.
125. Parmesan, C. & Yohe, G. (2003) A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems. Nature, 421, 37-42.
126. Parsons, M.S. (2003) The changing moth fauna of Britain during the twentieth century. Entomologist's Record and Journal of Variation, 115, 49-66.
127. Parsons, M. (2010) The changing moth and butterfly fauna of Britain - the first decade of the twenty-first century (2000-2009). Entomologist's Record and Journal of Variation, 122, 13-22.
128. Pimm, S.L., Russell, G.J., Gittleman, J.L. & Brooks, T.M. (1995) The future of biodiversity. Science, 269, 347-350.
129. Pocock, M.J.O. & Jennings, N. (2008) Testing biotic indicator taxa: the sensitivity of insectivorous mammals and their prey to the intensification of lowland agriculture. Journal of Applied Ecology, 45, 151-160.
130. Pollard, E., Woiwod, I.P., Greatorex-Davies, J.N., Yates, T.J. & Welch, R.C. (1998) The spread of coarse grasses and changes in numbers of Lepidoptera in a woodland nature reserve. Biological Conservation, 84, 17-24.
131. Poot, H., Ens, B.J., Vries, H.D., Donners, M.A.H., Wernand, M.R. & Marquenie, J.M. (2008) Green light for nocturnally migrating birds. Ecology and Society, 13, 47.
132. Pounds, J.A., Bustamante, M.R., Coloma, L.A., Consuegra, J.A., Fogden, M.P., Foster, P.N., La Marca, E., Masters, K.L., Merino-Viteri, A., Puschendorf, R., Ron, S.R., Sánchez-Azofeifa, G.A., Still, C.J. & Young, B.E. (2006) Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature, 439, 161-167.
133. Pöyry, J., Leinonen, R., Söderman, G., Nieminen, M., Heikkinen, R.K. & Carter, T.R. (2011) Climate-induced increase of moth multivoltinism in boreal regions. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 20, 289-298.
134. Proctor, M., Yeo, P. & Lack, A. (1996) The Natural History of Pollination. Harper Collins, London, UK.
135. Pywell, R.F., Warman, E.A., Sparks, T.H., Greatorex-Davies, J.N., Walker, K.J., Meek, W.R., Carvell, C., Petit, S. & Firbank, L.G. (2004) Assessing habitat quality for butterflies on intensively managed arable farmland. Biological Conservation, 118, 313-325.
136. Rich, C. & Longcore, T. (eds) (2006) Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting. Island Press, Washington, District of Columbia.
137. Rickman, J.K. & Connor, E.F. (2003) The effect of urbanization on the quality of remnant habitats for leaf-mining Lepidoptera on Quercus agrifolia. Ecography, 26, 777-787.
138. Ringwood, Z., Hill, J. & Gibson, C. (2004) Conservation management of Gortyna borelii lunata (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in the United Kingdom. Journal of Insect Conservation, 8, 173-183.
139. Roberts, C.M. & Hawkins, J.P. (1999) Extinction risk in the sea. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 14, 241-246.
140. Robinson, R.A. & Sutherland, W.J. (2002) Post-war changes in arable farming and biodiversity in Great Britain. Journal of Applied Ecology, 39, 157-176.
141. Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, Å., Chapin, F.S. III, Lambin, E.F., Lenton, T.M., Scheffer, M., Folke, C., Schellnhuber, H.J., Nykvist, B., de Wit, C.A., Hughes, T., van der Leeuw, S., Rodhe, H., Sörlin, S., Snyder, P.K., Costanza, R., Svedin, U., Falkenmark, M., Karlberg, L., Corell, R.W., Fabry, V.J., Hansen, J., Walker, B., Liverman, D., Richardson, K., Crutzen, P. & Foley, J.A. (2009) A safe operating space for humanity. Nature, 461, 472-475.
142. Rosser, A.M. & Mainka, S.A. (2002) Overexploitation and species extinctions. Conservation Biology, 16, 584-586.
143. Roy, D.B., Bohan, D.A., Haughton, A.J., Hill, M.O., Osborne, J.L., Clark, S.J., Perry, J.N., Rothery, P., Scott, R.J., Brooks, D.R., Champion, G.T., Hawes, C., Heard, M.S. & Firbank, L.G. (2003) Invertebrates and vegetation of field margins adjacent to crops subject to contrasting herbicide regimes in the Farm Scale Evaluations of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 358, 1879-1898.
144. Roy, D.B. & Sparks, T.H. (2000) Phenology of British butterflies and climate change. Global Change Biology, 6, 407-416.
145. Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (2009) Artificial Light in the Environment. The Stationery Office, Norwich, UK.
146. Salama, N.K.G., Knowler, J.T. & Adams, C.E. (2007) Increasing abundance and diversity in the moth assemblage of east Loch Lomondside, Scotland over a 35year period. Journal of Insect Conservation, 11, 151-156.
147. Schröter, D., Cramer, W., Leemans, R., Prentice, I.C., Araújo, M.B., Arnell, N.W., Bondeau, A., Bugmann, H., Carter, T.R., Gracia, C.A., de la Vega-Leinert, A.C., Erhard, M., Ewert, F., Glendining, M., House, J.I., Kankaanpää, S., Klein, R.J.T., Lavorel, S., Lindner, M., Metzger, M.J., Meyer, J., Mitchell, T.D., Reginster, I., Rounsevell, M., Sabaté, S., Sitch, S., Smith, B., Smith, J., Smith, P., Sykes, M.T., Thonicke, K., Thuiller, W., Tuck, G., Zaehle, S. & Zierl, B. (2005) Ecosystem service supply and vulnerability to global change in Europe. Science, 310, 1333-1337.
148. Scottish Government. (2007) Scotland's Biodiversity Indicators. The Scottish Government, Edinburgh, UK. 12th September 2011.
149. Settele, J., Dover, J., Dolek, M. & Konvička, M. (2009) Butterflies of European ecosystems: impact of land use and options for conservation management. Ecology of Butterflies in Europe (ed. by J. Settele, T. Shreeve, M. Konvička and H. Van Dyck), pp. 353-370. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
150. Severns, P.M. (2011) Habitat restoration facilitates an ecological trap for a locally rare, wetland-restricted butterfly. Insect Conservation and Diversity, 4, 184-191.
151. Sharma, R.K. & Agrawal, M. (2005) Biological effects of heavy metals: an overview. Journal of Environmental Biology, 26, 301-313.
152. Singer, M.C. & Parmesan, C. (2010) Phenological asynchrony between herbivorous insects and their hosts: signal of climate change or pre-existing adaptive strategy?Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 365, 3161-3176.
153. Skinner, B. (2009) Colour Identification Guide to Moths of the British Isles. Apollo Books, Stenstrup, Denmark.
154. Smith, C. (2010) London: Garden City? London Wildlife Trust, Greenspace Information for Greater London and the Greater London Authority, London, UK.
155. Sparks, T.H., Greatorex-Davies, J.N., Mountford, J.O., Hall, M.L. & Marrs, R.H. (1996) The effects of shade on the plant communities of rides in plantation woodland and implications for butterfly conservation. Forest Ecology and Management, 80, 197-207.
156. Sparks, T.H., Roy, D.B. & Dennis, R.L.H. (2005) The influence of temperature on migration of Lepidoptera into Britain. Global Change Biology, 11, 507-514.
157. Stefanescu, C., Peñuela, J. & Filella, I. (2009) Rapid changes in butterfly communities following the abandonment of grasslands: a case study. Insect Conservation and Diversity, 2, 261-269.
158. Stevens, C.J., Dise, N.B., Mountford, J.O. & Gowing, D.J. (2004) Impact of nitrogen deposition on the species richness of grasslands. Science, 303, 1876-1879.
159. Stone, E.L., Jones, G. & Harris, S. (2009) Street lighting disturbs commuting bats. Current Biology, 19, 1123-1127.
160. Sutherland, W.J., Armstrong-Brown, S., Armsworth, P.R., Brereton, T., Brickland, J., Campbell, C.D., Chamberlain, D.E., Cooke, A.I., Dulvy, N.K., Dusic, N.R., Fitton, M.G., Freckleton, R.P., Godfray, H.C.J., Grout, N., Harvey, H.J., Hedley, C., Hopkins, J.J., Kift, N.B., Kirby, J., Kunin, W.E., Macdonald, D.W., Marker, B., Naura, M., Neale, A.R., Oliver, T., Osborn, D., Pullin, A.S., Shardlow, M.E.A., Showler, D.A., Smith, P.L., Smithers, R.J., Solandt, J.-L., Spencer, J., Spray, C.J., Thomas, C.D., Thompson, J., Webb, S.E., Yalden, D.W. & Watkinson, A.R. (2006) The identification of 100 ecological questions of high policy relevance in the UK. Journal of Applied Ecology, 43, 617-627.
161. Sutherland, W.J., Bailey, M.J., Bainbridge, I.P., Brereton, T., Dick, J.T.A., Drewitt, J., Dulvy, N.K., Dusic, N.R., Freckleton, R.P., Gaston, K.J., Gilder, P.M., Green, R.E., Heathwaite, L., Johnson, S.M., Macdonald, D.W., Mitchell, R., Osborn, D., Owen, R.P., Pretty, J., Prior, S.V., Prosser, H., Pullin, A.S., Rose, P., Stott, A., Tew, T., Thomas, C.D., Thompson, D.B.A., Vickery, J.A., Walker, M., Walmsley, C., Warrington, S., Watkinson, A.R., Williams, R.J., Woodroffe, R. & Woodroof, H.J. (2008) Future novel threats and opportunities facing UK biodiversity identified by horizon scanning. Journal of Applied Ecology, 45, 821-833.
162. van Swaay, C.A.M., Nowicki, P., Settele, J. & van Strien, A.J. (2008) Butterfly monitoring in Europe: methods, applications and perspectives. Biodiversity and Conservation, 17, 3455-3469.
163. van Swaay, C., Warren, M.S. & Lois, G. (2006) Biotope use and trends of European butterflies. Journal of Insect Conservation, 10, 189-209.
164. Taylor, L.R., French, R.A. & Woiwod, I.P. (1978) The Rothamsted Insect Survey and the urbanization of land in Great Britain. Perspectives in Urban Entomology (ed. by G.W. Frankie and C.S. Koehler), pp. 31-65. Academic Press, New York.
165. Taylor, M.E. & Morecroft, M.D. (2009) Effects of agri-environment schemes in a long-term ecological time series. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 130, 9-15.
166. Thackeray, S.J., Sparks, T.H., Frederiksenz, M., Burthe, S., Bacon, P.J., Bell, J.R., Botham, M.S., Brereton, T.M., Bright, P.W., Carvalho, L., Clutton-Brock, T., Dawson, A., Edwards, M., Elliott, J.M., Harrington, R., Johns, D., Jones, I.D., Jones, J.T., Leech, D.I., Roy, D.B., Scott, W.A., Smith, M., Smithers, R.J., Winfield, I.J. & Wanless, S. (2010) Trophic level asynchrony in rates of phenological change for marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments. Global Change Biology, 16, 3304-3313.
167. Thomas, C.D. (2000) Dispersal and extinction in fragmented landscapes. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 267, 139-145.
168. Thomas, J.A. (2005) Monitoring change in the abundance and distribution of insects using butterflies and other indicator groups. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 360, 339-357.
169. Thomas, J.A., Bourn, N.A.D., Clarke, R.T., Stewart, K.E., Simcox, D.J., Pearman, G.S., Curtis, R. & Goodger, B. (2001) The quality and isolation of habitat patches both determine where butterflies persist in fragmented landscapes. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 268, 1791-1796.
170. Thomas, C.D., Cameron, A., Green, R.E., Bakkenes, M., Beamont, L.J., Collingham, Y.C., Erasmus, B.F.N., Ferreira de Siqueira, M., Grainger, A., Hannah, L., Hughes, L., Huntley, B., van Jaarsveld, A.S., Midgley, G.F., Miles, L., Ortega-Huerta, M.A., Peterson, A.T., Phillips, O.L. & Williams, S.E. (2004a) Extinction risk from climate change. Nature, 427, 145-148.
171. Thomas, J.A. & Clarke, R.T. (2004) Extinction rates and butterflies. Science, 305, 1563-1565.
172. Thomas, C.D., Franco, A.M.A. & Hill, J.K. (2006) Range retractions and extinction in the face of climate warming. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 21, 415-416.
173. Thomas, J.A., Telfer, M.G., Roy, D.B., Preston, C.D., Greenwood, J.J.D., Asher, J., Fox, R., Clarke, R.T. & Lawton, J.H. (2004b) Comparative losses of British butterflies, birds, and plants and the global extinction crisis. Science, 303, 1879-1881.
174. Travis, J.M.J. (2003) Climate change and habitat destruction: a deadly anthropogenic cocktail. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 270, 467-473.
175. Tscharntke, T., Klein, A.M., Kruess, A., Steffan-Dewenter, I. & Thies, C. (2005) Landscape perspectives on agricultural intensification and biodiversity - ecosystem service management. Ecology Letters, 8, 857-874.
176. UK National Ecosystem Assessment (2011) The UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Synthesis of the Key Findings. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.
177. Van der Wal, R., Pearce, I., Brooker, R., Scott, D., Welch, D. & Woodin, S. (2003) Interplay between nitrogen deposition and grazing causes habitat degradation. Ecology Letters, 6, 141-146.
178. Van Dyck, H., van Strien, A.J., Maes, D. & van Swaay, C.A.M. (2009) Declines in common, widespread butterflies in a landscape under intense human use. Conservation Biology, 23, 957-965.
179. Vaughan, N. (1997) The diets of British bats (Chiroptera). Mammal Review, 27, 77-94.
180. Visser, M.E. & Holleman, L.J.M. (2001) Warmer springs disrupt the synchrony of oak and winter moth phenology. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 268, 289-294.
181. WallisDeVries, M.F. & van Swaay, C.A.M. (2006) Global warming and excess nitrogen may induce butterfly decline by microclimatic cooling. Global Change Biology, 12, 1620-1626.
182. Waring, P., Townsend, M. & Lewington, R. (2009) Field Guide to the Moths of Great Britain and Ireland. British Wildlife Publishing, Gillingham, UK.
183. Warren, M.S. & Bourn, N.A.D. (2011) Ten challenges for 2010 and beyond to conserve Lepidoptera in Europe. Journal of Insect Conservation, 15, 321-326.
184. Warren, M.S., Hill, J.K., Thomas, J.A., Asher, J., Fox, R., Huntley, B., Roy, D.B., Telfer, M.G., Jeffcoate, S., Harding, P., Jeffcoate, G., Willis, S.G., Greatorex-Davies, J.N., Moss, D. & Thomas, C.D. (2001) Rapid responses of British butterflies to opposing forces of climate and habitat change. Nature, 414, 65-69.
185. Warren, M.S. & Key, R.S. (1991) Woodlands: past, present and potential for insects. The Conservation of Insects and their Habitats (ed. by N.M. Collins and J.A. Thomas), pp. 155-211. Academic Press, London, UK.
186. Wenzel, M., Schmitt, T., Weitzel, M. & Seitz, A. (2006) The severe decline of butterflies on western German calcareous grasslands during the last 30years: a conservation problem. Biological Conservation, 128, 542-552.
187. Wickramasinghe, L.P., Harris, S., Jones, G. & Jennings, N. (2004) Abundance and species richness of nocturnal insects on organic and conventional farms: effects of agricultural intensification on bat foraging. Conservation Biology, 18, 1283-1292.
188. Wilson, R.J., Gutiérrez, D., Gutiérrez, J. & Monserrat, V.J. (2007) An elevational shift in butterfly species richness and composition accompanying recent climate change. Global Change Biology, 13, 1873-1887.
189. Wilson, J.D., Morris, A.J., Arroyo, B.E., Clark, S.C. & Bradbury, R.B. (1999) A review of the abundance and diversity of invertebrate and plant foods of granivorous birds in northern Europe in relation to agricultural change. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 75, 13-30.
190. Wilson, R.J. & Roy, D.B. (2009) Butterfly population structure and dynamics. Ecology of Butterflies in Europe (ed. by J. Settele, T. Shreeve, M. Konvička and H. Van Dyck), pp. 81-96. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
191. Woiwod, I.P. & Gould, P.J.L. (2008) Long-term moth studies at Rothamsted. The Moths of Hertfordshire (ed. by C.W. Plant), pp. 31-44. Hertfordshire Natural History Society, Welwyn Garden City, UK.
192. Young, M. (1997) The Natural History of Moths. T. & A.D Poyser, London, UK.
193. Young, M.R. & Barbour, D.A. (2004) Conserving the New Forest burnet moth in Scotland, responses to grazing reduction and consequent vegetation changes. Journal of Insect Conservation, 8, 137-148.