Reducing salt intake to prevent hypertension and cardiovascular disease

Revista Panamericana de Salud Publica/Pan American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 32, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 293-300

  He, Feng J ^a   Campbell, Norm R C ^b   MacGregor, Graham A ^a  

^a QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Americas; Blood pressure; Cardiovascular diseases; Dietary; Hypertension; Sodium chloride

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL UPTAKE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; COHORT ANALYSIS; DEVELOPING WORLD; DIET; FOOD INDUSTRY; FOOD QUALITY; HEALTH CARE; HEALTH EXPENDITURE; HEALTH IMPACT; HEALTH POLICY; HEALTH RISK; HYPERTENSION; INGESTION RATE; SALT; SODIUM CHLORIDE;

ARTICLE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; ECONOMICS; HEALTH; HEALTH PROMOTION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; PUBLIC HEALTH; SALT INTAKE; WESTERN HEMISPHERE;

AMERICAS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES; HEALTH PROMOTION; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; PUBLIC HEALTH; SODIUM CHLORIDE, DIETARY; WORLD HEALTH;

NORTH AMERICA; SOUTH AMERICA;

EID: 84872775454     PISSN: 10204989     EISSN: 16805348     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1590/S1020-49892012001000008     Document Type: Article

References (65)

1. Lawes CM, Vander Hoorn S, Rodgers A. Global burden of blood-pressure-related disease, 2001. Lancet. 2008;371:1513-8.
2. Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Muntner P, Whelton PK, He J. Global burden of hypertension: analysis of worldwide data. Lancet. 2005;365:217-23.
3. Pan American Health Organization-World Health Organization. Cardiovascular disease prevention through dietary salt reduction. Washington, D.C.: PAHO-WHO; 2011. Available from: http://new.paho.org/hq/index. php?option=com-content&task=view&id=20 15&Itemid=1757 Accessed 21 May 2012.
4. World Health Organization. The world health report 2002: reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva: WHO; 2002. Available from: www.who.int/whr/2002 Accessed 28 August 2012.
5. Pan American Health Organization. Noncommunicable disease project and health information and analysis project and sustainable development and environment area: noncommunicable diseases in the Americas: basic indicators 2011. Washington, D.C.: PAHO; 2011. Available from: http://new.paho.org/hq/ index.php?option=com-content&task=view &id=1512&Itemid= 1663&lang=en Accessed 3 June 2012.
6. Brown IJ, Tzoulaki I, Candeias V, Elliott P. Salt intakes around the world: implications for public health. Int J Epidemiol. 2009;38:791-813.
7. Legetic B, Campbell N. Reducing salt intake in the Americas: Pan American Health Organization actions. J Health Commun. 2011;16 (Suppl 2):37-48.
8. He FJ, MacGregor GA. Reducing population salt intake worldwide: from evidence to implementation. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2010;52: 363-82.
9. Intersalt Cooperative Research Group. Intersalt: an international study of electrolyte excretion and blood pressure. Results for 24 hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion. BMJ. 1988;297:319-28.
10. Elliott P, Stamler J, Nichols R, Dyer AR, Stamler R, Kesteloot H, et al. Intersalt revisited: further analyses of 24 hour sodium excretion and blood pressure within and across populations. Intersalt Cooperative Research Group. BMJ. 1996;312:1249-53.
11. Poulter NR, Khaw KT, Hopwood BE, Mugambi M, Peart WS, Rose G, et al. The Kenyan Luo migration study: observations on the initiation of a rise in blood pressure. BMJ. 1990;300:967-72.
12. Forte JG, Miguel JM, Miguel MJ, de Pádua F, Rose G. Salt and blood pressure: a community trial. J Hum Hypertens. 1989;3:179-84.
13. Lifton RP. Molecular genetics of human blood pressure variation. Science. 1996;272:676-80.
14. Denton D, Weisinger R, Mundy NI, Wickings EJ, Dixson A, Moisson P, et al. The effect of increased salt intake on blood pressure of chimpanzees. Nat Med. 1995;1:1009-16.
15. He FJ, MacGregor GA. How far should salt intake be reduced? Hypertension. 2003;42:1093-9.
16. Elliott P, Walker LL, Little MP, Blair-West JR, Shade RE, Lee DR, et al. Change in salt intake affects blood pressure of chimpanzees: implications for human populations. Circulation. 2007;116:1563-8.
17. Tian HG, Guo ZY, Hu G, Yu SJ, Sun W, Pietinen P, et al. Changes in sodium intake and blood pressure in a community-based intervention project in China. J Hum Hypertens. 1995;9:959-68.
18. Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D, et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:3-10.
19. He FJ, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA, MacGregor GA. Importance of the renin system in determining blood pressure fall with salt restriction in black and white hypertensives. Hypertension. 1998;32:820-4.
20. Dahl LK, Knudsen KD, Heine MA, Leitl GJ. Effects of chronic excess salt ingestion. Modification of experimental hypertension in the rat by variations in the diet. Circ Res. 1968;22:11-8.
21. MacGregor GA, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA, Singer DR, Cappuccio FP. Double-blind study of three sodium intakes and long-term effects of sodium restriction in essential hypertension. Lancet. 1989;334:1244-7.
22. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Guidance on the prevention of cardiovascular disease at the population level. London: NICE; 2010. Available from: http://guidance.nice.org.uk/PH25 Accessed 14 July 2010.
23. Institute of Medicine. Strategies to reduce sodium intake in the United States. Washington, D.C.: IOM; 2010. Available from: www.iom. edu/Reports/2010/Strategies-to-Reduce-Sodium-Intake-in-the-United-States.aspx Accessed 28 May 2010.
24. Sodium Working Group. Sodium reduction strategy for Canada. Ottawa: Health Canada; 2010. Available from: http://publications. gc.ca/collections/ collection-2010/sc-hc/H164-121-2010-eng.pdf Accessed 8 June 2012.
25. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a metaanalysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet. 2002;360:1903-13.
26. He FJ, MacGregor GA. Effect of modest salt reduction on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Implications for public health. J Hum Hypertens. 2002;16:761-70.
27. Strazzullo P, D Elia L, Kandala NB, Cappuccio FP. Salt intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of prospective studies. BMJ. 2009;339:b4567.
28. Cook NR, Cutler JA, Obarzanek E, Buring JE, Rexrode KM, Kumanyika SK, et al. Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: observational follow-up of the trials of hypertension prevention (TOHP). BMJ. 2007;334:885-8.
29. Stolarz-Skrzypek K, Kuznetsova T, Thijs L, Tikhonoff V, Seidlerová J, Richart T, et al. Fatal and nonfatal outcomes, incidence of hypertension, and blood pressure changes in relation to urinary sodium excretion. JAMA. 2011;305:1777-85.
30. O'Donnell MJ, Yusuf S, Mente A, Gao P, Mann JF, Teo K, et al. Urinary sodium and potassium excretion and risk of cardiovascular events. JAMA. 2011;306:2229-38.
31. He FJ, Appel LJ, Cappuccio FP, de Wardener HE, MacGregor GA. Does reducing salt intake increase cardiovascular mortality? Kidney Int. 2011;80:696-8.
32. He FJ, Macgregor GA. Cardiovascular disease: salt and cardiovascular risk. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2012;8:134-6.
33. Taylor RS, Ashton KE, Moxham T, Hooper L, Ebrahim S. Reduced dietary salt for the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;7:CD009217.
34. Taylor RS, Ashton KE, Moxham T, Hooper L, Ebrahim S. Reduced dietary salt for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: a metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials (Cochrane Review). Am J Hypertens. 2011; 24:843-53.
35. Paterna S, Gaspare P, Fasullo S, Sarullo FM, Di Pasquale P. Normal-sodium diet compared with low-sodium diet in compensated congestive heart failure: is sodium an old enemy or a new friend? Clin Sci (Lond). 2008; 114:221-30.
36. He FJ, MacGregor GA. Salt reduction lowers cardiovascular risk: meta-analysis of outcome trials. Lancet. 2011;378:380-2.
37. Graudal NA, Hubeck-Graudal T, Jurgens G. Effects of low sodium diet versus high sodium diet on blood pressure, renin, aldosterone, catecholamines, cholesterol, and triglyceride. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011:11: CD004022.
38. Beckmann SL, Os I, Kjeldsen SE, Eide IK, Westheim AS, Hjermann I. Effect of dietary counselling on blood pressure and arterial plasma catecholamines in primary hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 1995;8:704-11.
39. The ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs diuretic: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). JAMA. 2002; 288:2981-97.
40. Selmer RM, Kristiansen IS, Haglerod A, Graff-Iversen S, Larsen HK, Meyer HE, et al. Cost and health consequences of reducing the population intake of salt. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2000;54:697-702.
41. Joffres MR, Campbell NR, Manns B, Tu K. Estimate of the benefits of a population-based reduction in dietary sodium additives on hypertension and its related health care costs in Canada. Can J Cardiol. 2007;23:437-43.
42. Asaria P, Chisholm D, Mathers C, Ezzati M, Beaglehole R. Chronic disease prevention: health effects and financial costs of strategies to reduce salt intake and control tobacco use. Lancet. 2007;370:2044-53.
43. Murray CJ, Lauer JA, Hutubessy RC, Niessen L, Tomijima N, Rodgers A, et al. Effectiveness and costs of interventions to lower systolic blood pressure and cholesterol: a global and regional analysis on reduction of cardiovascular-disease risk. Lancet. 2003;361:717-25.
44. Bibbins-Domingo K, Chertow GM, Coxson PG, Moran A, Lightwood JM, Pletcher MJ, et al. Projected effect of dietary salt reductions on future cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:590-9.
45. Palar K, Sturm R. Potential societal savings from reduced sodium consumption in the U.S. adult population. Am J Health Promot. 2009;24:49-57.
46. Smith-Spangler CM, Juusola JL, Enns EA, Owens DK, Garber AM. Population strategies to decrease sodium intake and the burden of cardiovascular disease: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2010;152:481-7.
47. Department of Health. Assessment of dietary sodium levels among adults (aged 19-64) in England, 2011. London: Department of Health; 2012. Available from: http://transparency. dh.gov.uk/2012/06/21/sodium-levelsamong-adults/ Accessed 25 June 2012.
48. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Prevention of cardiovascular disease at the population level. NICE: London; 2010. Available from: http://guidance.nice. org.uk/PH25 Accessed 30 October 2012.
49. Rubinstein A, Colantonio L, Bardach A, Caporale J, Martí SG, Kopitowski K, et al. Estimation of the burden of cardiovascular disease attributable to modifiable risk factors and cost-effectiveness analysis of preventative interventions to reduce this burden in Argentina. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:627.
50. James WP, Ralph A, Sanchez-Castillo CP. The dominance of salt in manufactured food in the sodium intake of affluent societies. Lancet. 1987;1:426-9.
51. Karppanen H, Mervaala E. Sodium intake and hypertension. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2006;49: 59-75.
52. Larsson SC, Virtanen MJ, Mars M, Männistö S, Pietinen P, Albanes D, et al. Magnesium, calcium, potassium, and sodium intakes and risk of stroke in male smokers. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:459-65.
53. Laatikainen T, Pietinen P, Valsta L, Sundvall J, Reinivuo H, Tuomilehto J. Sodium in the Finnish diet: 20-year trends in urinary sodium excretion among the adult population. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2006;60:965-70.
54. Consensus Action on Salt and Health. Available from: www.actiononsalt. org.uk/Accessed 23 July 2012.
55. Food Standards Agency. Agency publishes 2012 salt reduction targets. London: FSA; 2009. Available from: www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2009/may/ salttargets Accessed 28 May 2010.
56. World Action on Salt and Health. Press release -medical experts launch global campaign against salt to prevent over 2.5 million deaths worldwide each year. London: WASH; 2006. Available from: http://www.worldaction onsalt.com/news/saltnews/2007/60497.html Accessed 30 October 2012.
57. Center for Science in the Public Interest. CSPI sues FDA to force end to 20-year delay in regulating salt. Washington, D.C.: CSPI; 2005. Available from: www.cspinet.org/new/200502242.html Accessed 28 May 2010.
58. Dickinson BD, Havas S. Reducing the population burden of cardiovascular disease by reducing sodium intake: a report of the Council on Science and Public Health. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:1460-8.
59. New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Cutting salt, improving health. New York: Department of Health and Mental Hygiene; 2010. Available from: www. nyc.gov/html/doh/html/cardio/cardio-saltinitiative. shtml Accessed 28 May 2010.
60. Mohan S, Campbell NR. Salt and high blood pressure. Clin Sci (Lond). 2009;117:1-11.
61. World Action on Salt and Health. South Africa leads the world in setting salt reduction targets. London: WASH; 2011. Available from: http://www. worldactiononsalt.com/news/saltnews/2011/60314.html Accessed 18 September 2012.
62. Anderson CA, Appel LJ, Okuda N, Brown IJ, Chan Q, Zhao L, et al. Dietary sources of sodium in China, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States, women and men aged 40 to 59 years: the INTERMAP study. J Am Diet Assoc. 2010;110:736-45.
63. Chang HY, Hu YW, Yue CS, Wen YW, Yeh WT, Hsu LS, et al. Effect of potassium-enriched salt on cardiovascular mortality and medical expenses of elderly men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83:1289-96.
64. China Salt Substitute Study Collaborative Group. Salt substitution: a low-cost strategy for blood pressure control among rural Chinese. A randomized, controlled trial. J Hypertens. 2007;25:2011-8.
65. Food Standards Agency. Traffic light labelling, Signposting. London: FSA; 2010. Available from: www.food.gov.uk/foodlabelling/signposting/Accessed 28 May 2010.