A comprehensive review of antibiotics in clinical trials for inflammatory bowel disease

International Journal of Pharmacology

Volumn 8, Issue 7, 2012, Pages 596-613

  Abdolghaffari, A H ^a,b   Nikfar, S ^c,d   Rahimi, H R ^b   Abdollahi, M ^b  

^a AVICENNA RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Iran)

^b TEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (Iran)

^c TEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (Iran)

^d MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND MEDICAL EDUCATION   (Iran)

Author keywords

Antibiotics; Clinical trial; Crohn's disease; Inflammatory bowel disease; Ulcerative colitis

Indexed keywords

4 NITROIMIDAZOLE; AMINOGLYCOSIDE; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIOXIDANT; BIOLOGICAL PRODUCT; CEPHALOSPORIN; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLARITHROMYCIN; CLOFAZIMINE; CORTICOSTEROID; DOXYCYCLINE; GLUCOCORTICOID; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; MACROLIDE; MESALAZINE; METRONIDAZOLE; PENICILLIN DERIVATIVE; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; RIFABUTIN; RIFAMPICIN; RIFAMYCIN; RIFAXIMIN; SALICYLIC ACID DERIVATIVE; TETRACYCLINE; TETRACYCLINE DERIVATIVE; TOBRAMYCIN; TUBERCULOSTATIC AGENT; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR INHIBITOR; UNINDEXED DRUG; VANCOMYCIN;

ANAEROBIC BACTERIUM; ANOREXIA; ARTICLE; CANDIDIASIS; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); COCHRANE LIBRARY; CROHN DISEASE; DIARRHEA; DRUG CHOICE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG USE; ENTERITIS; GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIUM; HUMAN; LONG TERM CARE; MEDLINE; NAUSEA; NONHUMAN; PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; ULCERATIVE COLITIS;

EID: 84871974300     PISSN: 18117775     EISSN: 18125700     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3923/ijp.2012.596.613     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. Abdolghaffari, A.H., A. Baghaei, F. Moayer, H. Esmaily and M. Baeeri et al, 2010. On the benefit of Teucrium in murine colitis through improvement of toxic inflammatory mediators. Human Exp. Toxicol., 29: 287-295.
2. Abraham, C. and J.H. Cho, 2009. Inflammatory bowel disease. N. Engl. J. Med., 361: 2066-2078.
3. Afdhal, N.H., A. Long, J. Lennon, J. Crowe and D.P. O'Donoghue, 1991. Controlled trial of antimycobacterial therapy in Crohn's disease. Clofazimine versus placebo. Dig. Dis. Sci., 36: 449-453.
4. Al-Qabandi, W.A., E.K Buhamrah, K.A Hamadi, S.A. Al-Osaimi, A.A. Al-Ruwayeh and J. Madda, 2011. Inflammatory bowel disease in children, an evolving problem in Kuwait. Saudi J. Gastroenterol., 17: 323-327.
5. Alivanis, P., G. Aperis, F. Lambrianou, A. Zervos, C. Pahouras, N. Karvouniaris and A. Arvanitis, 2010. Reversal of refractory sulfasalazine-related renal failure after treatment with corticosteroids. Clin. Ther.,32: 1906-1910.
6. Ambrose, N.S., R.N. Allan, M.R. Keighley, D.W. Burdon, D. Youngs, P. Barnes and J.E. Lennard-Jones, 1985. Antibiotic therapy for treatment in relapse of intestinal Crohn's disease: A prospective randomized study. Dis. Colon Rectum., 28: 81-85.
7. Amini-Shirazi, N, A. Hoseini, A. Ranjbar, A. Mohammadirad, N. Yasa and M. Abdollahi, 2009. Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor and nitrosative/oxidative stresses by ziziphora clinopoides (Kahlioti); A molecular mechanism of protection against dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis in mice. Toxicol. Mech Methods., 19: 183-189.
8. Arnold, G.L., M.R. Beaves, V.O. Pryjdun and W. J. Mook, 2002. Preliminary study of ciprofloxacin in active Crohn's disease. Inflamm. Bowel Dis., 8: 10-15.
9. Artis, D., 2008. Epithelial-cell recognition of commensal bacteria and maintenance of immune homeostasis in the gut. Nat. Rev. Immunol., 8: 411-420.
10. Bamias, G., M.R. Nyce, S.A. De La Rue and F. Cominelli, 2005. New concepts in the pathophysiology of inflammatory bowel disease. Ann. Intern. Med., 143: 895-904.
11. Baumgart, D.C., 2012. Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis From Epidemiology and Immunobiology to a Rational Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approach. Springer, New York, USA., ISBN-13: 978-1461409977.
12. Berg, A.M., C.P. Kelly and F.A. Fanaye, 2012. Clostridium difficile infection in the inflammatory bowel disease patient. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. (In Press).
13. Bernstein, C.N, M. Fried, J.H. Krabshuis, H. Cohen and R. Eliakim et at, 2010. World gastroenterology organization practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of IBD in 2010. Inflamm. Bowel Dis., 16: 112-124.
14. Blichfeldt, P., J.P. Blomhoff, E. Myhre and E. Gjone, 1978. Metronidazole in Crohn's disease: A double blind cross-over clinical trial. Scand. J. Gastroenterol., 13: 123-127.
15. Borody, T.J., S. Bilkey, A.R. Wettstein, S. Leis, G. Pang and S. Tye, 2007. Anti-mycobacterial therapy in Crohn's disease heals mucosa with longitudinal scars. Dig. Liver Dis., 39: 438-444.
16. Bottone, E.J., 1997. Yersinia enterocolitica: The charismacontinues. Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 10: 257-276.
17. Burillo, A. and E. Bouza, 2010. Chlamydophila pneumoniae. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am., 24: 61-71.
18. Burke, D.A., A.T. Axon, S.A. Clayden, M.F. Dixon, D. Johnston andR.W. Lacey, 1990. The efficacy of tobramycin in the treatment of ulcerative colitis. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther., 4: 123-129.
19. Carbonnel, F., P. Jantchou, E. Monnet and J. Cosnes, 2009. Environmental risk factors in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis: An update. Gastroenterol. Clin. Biol., 33: S145-S157.
20. Cario, E., 2010. Toll-like receptors in inflammatory bowel diseases: A decade later. Inflamm. Bowel Dis., 16: 1583-1597.
21. Casellas, F., N. Borruel, M. Papo, F. Guarner, M. Antolin, S. Videla and J.R. Malagelada, 1998. Antiinflammatory effects of enterically coated amoxicillin-clavulanic acid in active ulcerative colitis. Inflamm. Bowel Dis., 4: 1-5.
22. Chapman, R.W., W.S. Selby and D.P. Jewell, 1986. Controlled trial of intravenous metronidazole as an adjunct to corticosteroids in severe ulcerative colitis. Gut 27: 1210-1212.
23. Chiba, T., K. Sato, Y. Toya, K. Endo and Y. Abiko et al, 2011. Serial changes in cytokine expression in irritable bowel syndrome patients following treatment with calcium polycarbophil. Hepatogastroenterology, 58: 1527-1530.
24. Colombel, J.F., M. Lemann, M. Cassagnou, Y. Bouhnik and B. Duclos et al, 1999. A controlled trial comparing ciprofloxacin with mesalazine for the treatment of active Crohn's disease. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 94: 674-678.
25. Dalziel, T.K., 1913. Chronic interstitial enteritis. Br. Med. J., 2: 1068-1070.
26. Danese, S., M. Sans and C. Fiocchi, 2004. Inflammatory bowel disease: The role of environmental factors. Autoimmun. Rev., 3: 394-400.
27. Darfeuille-Michaud, A., J. Boudeau, P. Bulois, C. Neut and A.L. Glasser et al., 2004. High prevalence of adherent-invasive Escherichia coli associated with ileal mucosa in Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology, 127: 412-421.
28. Dejaco, C, M. Harrer, T. Waldhoer, W. Miehsler, H. Vogelsang and W. Reinisch, 2003. Antibiotics and azathioprine for the treatment of perianal fistulas in Crohn's disease. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther., 18: 1113-1120.
29. Dickinson, R.J., H.J. O'Connor, I. Pinder, I. Hamilton, D. Johnston and A.T. Axon, 1985. Double blind controlled trial of oral vancomycin as adjunctive treatment in acute exacerbations of idiopathic colitis. Gut 26: 1380-1384.
30. Ebrahimi, F., H. Esmaily, M. Baeeri, A. Mohammadirad, S. Fallah and M. Abdollahi, 2008. Molecular evidences on the benefit of N-acetylcysteine in experimental colitis. Central Eur. J. Biol. 3: 135-142.
31. Elahi, B., S. Nikfar, S. Derakhshani, M. Vafaie and M. Abdollahi, 2008. On the benefit of probiotics in the management of pouchitis in patients underwent ileal pouch anal anastomosis: A metaanalysis of controlled clinical trials. Dig. Dis. Sci.,53: 1278-1284.
32. Epstein, L. and Y. Golan, 2012. Fidaxomicin, a new treatment for Clostridium difficile infections. Drugs Today, 48: 101-108.
33. Feagan, B.G., W.J. Sandborn, S. Hass, T. Niecko and J. White, 2007. Health-related quality of life during natalizumab maintenance therapy for Crohn's disease. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 102: 2737-2746.
34. Fellerman, K., J. Wehkamp, K.R. Herrlinger and E.F. Stange, 2003. Crohn's disease: A defensin deficiency syndrome?. Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol., 15: 627-634.
35. Ford, A.C., W.J. Sandborn, K.J. Khan, S.B. Hanauer, N.J. Talley and P. Moayyedi, 2011. Efficacy of biological therapies in inflammatory bowel disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Gastroenterol, 106: 644-659.
36. Frank, D.N., A.L. Amand, R.A. Feldman, E.C. Boedeker, N. Harpaz and N.R. Pace, 2007. Molecular-phylogenetic characterization of microbial community imbalances in human inflammatory bowel diseases. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 104: 13780-13785.
37. Franke, A., T. Balschun, T.H. Karlsen, J. Sventoraityte and S. Nikolaus et al., 2008. Sequence variants in IL10, ARPC2 and multiple other loci contribute to ulcerative colitis susceptibility. Nat. Genet., 40: 1319-1323.
38. Ghasemi-Niri, S.F., A.H. Abdolghaffan, S. Fallah-Benakohal, M. Hosseinpour-Feizi and P. Mahdaviani et al, 2011. On the benefit of whey-cultured Lactobacillus casei in murine colitis. J. Physiol. Pharmacol, 62: 341-346.
39. Gionchetti, P., F. Rizzello, A. Ferrieri, A. Venturi and C. Brignola et al., 1999. Rifaximin in patients with moderate or severe ulcerative colitis refractory to steroid-treatment: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Dig. Dis. Sci., 44: 1220-1221.
40. Goodgame, R.W., K. Kimball, S. Akram, E. Ike, C.N. Ou, F. Sutton and D. Graham, 2001. Randomized controlled trial of clarithromycin and ethambutol in the treatment of Crohn's disease. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther., 15: 1861-1866.
41. Greenbloom, S.L., A.H. Steinhart and G.R. Greenberg, 1998. Combination ciprofloxacin and metronidazole for active Crohn's disease. Can. J. Gastroenterol., 12: 53-56.
42. Gui, G.P.H., P.R.S. Thomas, M.L.V. Tizard, J. Lake, J.D. Sanderson and J. Hermon-Taylor, 1997. Two-year-outcomesanalysis of Crohn's diseasetreated with rifabutin and macrolideantibiotics. J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 39: 393-400.
43. Hakonarson, H. and S.F. Grant, 2009. Genome-wide association studies in type 1 diabetes, inflammatory bowel disease and other immune-mediated disorders. Semin. Immunol., 21: 355-362.
44. Hanauer, S.B., 2006. Inflammatory bowel disease: epidemiology, pathogenesis and therapeutic opportunities. Inflamm. Bowel Dis., 1: S3-S9.
45. Hasani-Ranjbar, S., B. Larijani and M. Abdollahi, 2009. A systematic review of the potential herbal sources of future drugs effective in oxidant-related diseases. Inflamm. Allergy Drug Targets, 8: 2-10.
46. Hedin, C.R., M. Milliard, E. Sharratt, C. Jansen and J.D. Sanderson et al., 2010. Probiotic and prebiotic use in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: A case-control study. Inflamm. Bowel Dis., 16: 2099-2108.
47. Hosseini, A., S. Nikfar and M. Abdollahi, 2012. Probiotics use to treat irritable bowel syndrome. Expert Opin. Biol. Ther., 10.1517/14712598.2012.707179
48. Inoue, S., H. Nakase, M. Matsuura, S. Ueno and N. Uza et al., 2007. Open label trial of clarithromycin therapy in Japanese patients with Crohn's disease. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol, 22: 984-988.
49. Jamalifar, H., H. Rahimi, N. Samadi, A. Shahverdi and Z. Sharifian et al., 2011. Antimicrobial activity of different Lactobacillus species against multi- drug resistant clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Iran J. Microbiol., 3: 21-25.
50. Kappelman, M.D., S.L. Rifas-Shiman, K. Kleinman, D. Ollendorf, A. Bousvaros, R.J. Grand and J.A. Finkelstein, 2007. The prevalence and geographic distribution of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis in the United States. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol, 5: 1424-1429.
51. Khan, K.J., T.A. Ullman, A.C. Ford, M.T. Abreu and A. Abadir et al., 2011. Antibiotic therapy in inflammatory bowel disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Gastroenterol, 106: 661-673.
52. Khoshakhlagh, P., M. Bahrololoumi-Shapourabadi, A. Mohammadirad, L. Ashtaral-Nakhai, B. Minaie and M. Abdollahi, 2007. Beneficial effect of phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor in experimental inflammatory bowel disease: Molecular evidence for involvement of oxidative stress. Toxicol. Mech. Methods, 17: 281-288.
53. Koch, T.R., 2007. Treatment of Crohn's disease with an antibiotic regimen directed against mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis. http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/ show/NCT00513552
54. Koda-Kimble, M.A., L.Y. Young, W.A. Kradjan, B.J. Guglielmo, B.K. Alldredge andR.L. Corelli, 2009. Applied Therapeutics: The Clinical Use of Drugs. 9th Edn, Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia.
55. Kotlowski, R., C.N. Bernstein, S. Sepehri and D.O. Krause, 2007. High prevalence oiEscherichia coli belonging to the B2+D phylogenetic group in inflammatory bowel disease. Gut, 56: 669-675.
56. Krisner, J.B., 1988. Historical aspects of infl ammatory bowel disease. J. Clin. Gastroenterol, 10: 286-297.
57. Kuehbacher, T., S.J. Ott, U. Helwig, T. Mimura and F. Rizzellox /xet-aletal/et-al, 2006. Bacterial and fungal microbiota in relation to probiotic therapy (VSL No. 3) in pouchitis. Gut, 9: 833-841.
58. Lakatos, P.L. and P. Miheller, 2010. Is there an increased risk of lymphoma and malignancies under anti-TNF therapy in IBD? Curr. Drug Targets, 11: 179-186.
59. Lakatos, P.L., 2006. Recent trends in the epidemiology of inflammatory bowel diseases: Up or down? World J. Gastroenterol, 12: 6102-6108.
60. Langholz, E., J. Brynskov, K. Bendtzen, M. Vilien and V. Binder, 1992. Treatment of Crohn's disease with fusidic acid: An antibiotic with immunosuppressive properties similar to cyclosporin. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther., 6: 495-502.
61. Leiper, K., A.I. Morris and J.M. Rhodes, 2000. Open label trial of oral clarithromycin in active Crohn's disease. Aliment Pharmacol. Ther., 14: 801-806.
62. Leiper, K., K. Martin, A. Ellis, A.J. Watson, A.I. Morris and J.M. Rhodes, 2008. Clinical trial: Randomized study of clarithromycin versus placebo in active Crohn's disease. Aliment Pharmacol. Ther., 27: 1233-1239.
63. Li, C.Y., B.L. Zhang, C.X. Chen and Y.M. Li, 2008. OMOM capsule endoscopy in diagnosis of small bowel disease. J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. B., 9: 857-862.
64. Lichtenstein, G.R., M.T. Abreu, R. Cohen and W. Tremaine, 2006. American Gastroenterological Association Institute medical position statement on corticosteroids, immunomodulators and infliximab in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology, 130: 935-939.
65. Lobo, A.J., D.A. Burke, G.M. Sobalaand A.T. Axon, 1993. Oral tobramycin in ulcerative colitis: Effect on maintenance of remission. Aliment Pharmacol. Ther., 7: 155-158.
66. Loftus, E.V., B.G. Feagan, J.F. Colombel, D.T. Rubin and E.Q. Wu et at., 2008. Effects of adalimumab maintenance therapy on health-related quality of life of patients with Crohn's disease: Patient-reported outcomes of the CHARM trial. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 103: 3132-3141.
67. Madden, M.V., A.S. Mclntyre and R.J. Nicholls, 1994. Double-blind crossover trial of metronidazole versus placebo in chronic unremitting pouchitis. Dig. Dis. Sci.,39: 1193-1196.
68. Maeda, Y., S.C. Ng, P. Durdey, C. Burt and J. Torkingtonx /xet-aletal/et-al., 2010. Randomized clinical trial of metronidazole ointment versus placebo in perianal Crohn's disease. Br. J. Surg., 97: 1340-1347.
69. Mantzaris, G.J., A. Hatzis, P. Kontogiannis and G. Triadaphyllou, 1994. Intravenous tobramycin and metronidazole as an adjunct to corticosteroids in acute, severe ulcerative colitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 89: 43-46.
70. Mantzaris, G.J., E. Archavlis, P. Christo fori dis, D. Kourtessas and P. Amberiadis et al, 1997. A prospective randomized controlled trial of oral ciprofloxacin in acute ulcerative colitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 92: 454-456.
71. Mantzaris, G.J., K. Petraki, E. Archavlis, P. Amberiadis, D. Kourtessas, A. Christidou and G. Triantafyllou, 2001. A prospective randomized controlled trial of intravenous ciprofloxacin as an adjunct to corticosteroids in acute, severe ulcerative colitis. Scand. J. Gastroenterol, 36: 971-974.
72. Mantzaris, G.J., M. Sfakianakis, E. Archavlis, K. Petraki, A. Christidou, A. Karagiannidis and G. Triadaphyllou, 2004. A prospective randomized observer-blind 2-year trial of azathioprine monotherapy versus azathioprine and olsalazine for the maintenance of remission of steroid-dependent ulcerative colitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 99:1122-1128.
73. Maragkoudakis, S., S.R. Poulidaki, E. Papadomanolaki, G. Alevraki, M. Papadogianni, N. Oikonomou and P. Fanourgiakis, 2011. Empiric antimicrobial therapy and infectious diarrhea. Do we need local guidelines? Eur. J. Int. Med., 22: 60-62.
74. Mathew, C.G. and CM. Lewis, 2004. Genetics of inflammatory bowel disease: Progress and prospects. Hum. Mol. Genet, 13: R161-R168.
75. Mayer, L., 2010. Evolving paradigms in the pathogenesis of IBD. J. Gastroenterol., 45: 9-16.
76. Nikfar, S., R. Rahimi, F. Rahimi, S. Derakhshani and M. Abdollahi, 2008. Efficacy of probiotics in irritable bowel syndrome: a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Dis. Colon Rectum., 51: 1775-1780.
77. Nikfar, S., R. Rahimi, A. Rezaie and M. Abdollahi, 2009. A Meta-Analysis of the efficacy of sulfasalazine in comparison with 5-aminosalicylates in the induction of improvement and maintenance of remission in patients with ulcerative colitis. Dig. Dis. Sci., 54: 1157-1170.
78. Nikfar, S., H. Mirfazaehan and M. Abdollahi, 2010a. Efficacy and tolerability of immunoregulators and antibiotics in fistulizing Crohn's disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials. Curr. Pharm. Des., 16: 3684-3698.
79. Nikfar, S., M. Darvish-Damavandi and M. Abdollahi, 2010b. A review and meta-analysis of the efficacy of antibiotics and probiotics in management of pouchitis. Int. J. Pharmacol., 6: 826-835.
80. Nomura, T., T. Ohkusa, I. Okayasu, T. Yoshida and M. Sakamoto et al, 2005. Mucosa-associated bacteria in ulcerative colitis before and after antibiotic combination therapy. Aliment Pharmacol. Ther., 21: 1017-1027.
81. O'Hara, J.R., T.D. Feener, CD. Fischer and A.G. Buret, 2012. Campylobacter jejuni disrupts protective Toll-like receptor 9 signaling in colonic epithelial cells and increases the severity of dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice. Infect. Immun., 80: 1563-1571.
82. Ohkusa, T., K. Kato, S. Terao, T. Chiba and K. Mabe et al., 2010. Newly developed antibiotic combination therapy for ulcerative colitis: A double-blind placebo-controlled multicenter trial. Am. J. Gastroenterol, 104: 1820-1829.
83. Ohkusa, T., T. Nomura, T. Terai, H. Miwa and O. Kobayashi et al., 2005. Effectiveness of antibiotic combination therapy in patients with active ulcerative colitis: A randomized, controlled pilot trial with long-term follow-up. Scand. J. Gastroenterol, 40: 1334-1342.
84. Ott, S.J., T. Kuhbacher, M. Musfeldt, P. Rosenstiel and S. Hellmigx /xet-aletal/et-al., 2008. Fungi and inflammatory bowel diseases: Alterations of composition and diversity. Scand. J. Gastroenterol, 43: 831-841.
85. Pineton de Chambrun, G., J.F. Colombel, D. Poulain and A. Darfeuille-Michaud, 2008. Pathogenic agents in inflammatory bowel diseases. Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol., 24: 440-447.
86. Pithadia, A.B. and S. Jain, 2011. Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (TBD). Pharmacol. Rep., 63: 629-642.
87. Prantera, C. and M.L. Scribano, 2009. Antibiotics and probiotics in inflammatory bowel disease: Why, when and how. Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol., 25: 329-333.
88. Prantera, C, A. Kohn, R. Mangiarotti, A. Andreoli and C. Luzi, 1994. Antimycobacterial therapy in Crohn's disease: Results of a controlled, double-blind trial with a multiple antibiotic regimen. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 89: 513-518.
89. Prantera, C, F. Zannoni, M.L. Scribano, E. Berto, A. Andreoli, A. Kohn and C. Luzi, 1996. An antibiotic regimen for the treatment of active Crohn's disease: a randomized, controlled clinical trial of metronidazole plus ciprofloxacin. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 91: 328-332.
90. Prantera, C, H. Lochs, M. Campieri, M.L. Scribano, G.C. Sturniolo, F. Castiglione andM. Cottone, 2006. Antibiotic treatment of Crohn's disease: Results of a multicentre, double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial with rifaximin. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther.,23: 1117-1125.
91. Prantera, C, H. Lochs, M. Grimaldi, S. Danese and M.L. Scribano et al., 2012. Rifaximin-extended intestinal release induces remission in patients with moderately active Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology, 142: 473-481.
92. Rahimi, R., S. Nikfar and M. Abdollahi, 2007a. Do antitumor necrosis factors induce response and remission in patients with acute refractory Crohn's disease? A systematic meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Biomed. Pharmacother., 61: 75-80.
93. Rahimi, R., S. Nikfar and M. Abdollahi, 2007b. Metaanalysis technique confirms the effectiveness of anti-TNF-a in the management of active ulcerative colitis when administered in combination with corticosteroids. Med. Sci. Monit, 13: 13-18.
94. Rahimi, R, S. Nikfar, A. Rezaie and M. Abdollahi, 2007c. A meta-analysis of antibiotic therapy for active ulcerative colitis. Dig. Dis. Sci., 52: 2920-2925.
95. Rahimi, R., S. Nikfar, A. Rezaie and M. Abdollahi, 2008a. A meta-analysis of the benefit of probiotics in maintaining remission of human ulcerative colitis: Evidence for prevention of disease relapse and maintenance of remission. Arch. Med. Sci., 4: 185-190.
96. Rahimi, R, S. Nikfar, F. Rahimi, B. Elahi, S. Derakhsham, M. Vafaie and M. Abdollahi, 2008b. A meta-analysis on the efficacy of probiotics for maintenance of remission and prevention of clinical and endoscopic relapse in Crohn's disease. Dig. Dis. Sci., 53: 2524-2531.
97. Rahimi, R, S. Nikfar, A. Rezaie andM. Abdollahi, 2009a. Comparison of mesalazine and balsalazide in induction and maintenance of remission in patients with ulcerative colitis: A meta-analysis. Dig. Dis. Sci., 54: 712-721.
98. Rahimi, R., S. Mozaffari andM. Abdollahi, 2009b. On the use of herbal medicines in management of inflammatory bowel diseases: A systematic review of animal and human studies. Dig. Dis. Sci., 54: 471-480.
99. Rahimi, R., M.R. Shams-Ardekam and M. Abdollahi, 2010. A review of the efficacy of traditional Iranian medicine for inflammatory bowel disease. World J. Gastroenterol, 16: 4504-4514.
100. Ramasundara, M., S.T. Leach, D.A. Lemberg and A. S. Day, 2009. Defensins and inflammation: The role of defensins in inflammatory bowel disease. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol, 24: 202-208.
101. Reiff, C. andD. Kelly, 2010. Inflammatory bowel disease, gut bacteria and probiotic therapy. Int. J. Med. Microbiol, 300: 25-33.
102. Rezaie, A., R.D. Parker and M. Abdollahi, 2007. Oxidative stress and pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease: An epiphenomenon or the cause. Dig. Dis. Sci., 52: 2015-2021.
103. Rhodes, J.M., 2007. The role of Escherichia coli in inflammatory bowel disease. Gut, 56: 610-612.
104. Ruiz-Bolivar, Z., M.C. Neuque-Rico, A.K. Carrascal-Camacho, R.A. Poutou-Pinales and S. Mattar, 2011. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Listeria monocytogenes food isolates from different cities in Colombia. Foodborne Pathogens Dis., 8: 913-919.
105. Rutgeerts, P., S. Vermeire and G. Van Assche, 2009. Biological therapies for inflammatory bowel diseases. Gastroenterology, 136: 1182-1197.
106. Salari, P. and M. Abdollahi, 2009. Current opinion in the pharmaceutical management of irritable and inflammatory bowel diseases: Role of ATP. Rec. Pat. Endoc. Metab. Immune Drug Disc, 3: 69-75.
107. Salari, P., S. Nikfar and M. Abdollahi, 2012. A metaanalysis and systematic review on the effect of probiotics in acute diarrhea. Inflamm. Allergy Drug Targets, 11: 3-14.
108. Sartor, R., 2004. Therapeutic manipulation of the entericmicroflora in inflammatory bowel diseases: Antibiotics, probiotics prebiotics. Gastroenterology, 126: 1620-1633.
109. Sartor, R.B., 2005. Does Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis cause Crohn's disease? Gut 54: 896-898.
110. Sasaki, M., S.V. Sitaraman, B.A. Babbin, P. Gerner-Smidt and E.M. Ribot et al., 2007. Invasive Escherichia coli are a feature of Crohn's disease. Lab. Invest, 87: 1042-1054.
111. Sato, K., T. Chiba and T. Ohkusa, 2009. Serial changes of cytokines in active ulcerative colitis: Effects of antibiotic combination therapy. Hepatogastroenterology, 56: 1016-1021.
112. Saverymuttu, S., H.J. Hodgson and V.S. Chadwick, 1985. Controlled trial comparing prednisolone with an elemental diet plus non-absorbable antibiotics in active Crohn's disease. Gut, 26: 994-998.
113. Scanlan, P.D. and J.R. Marchesi, 2008. Micro-eukaryotic diversity of the human distal gut microbiota: Qualitative assessment using culture-dependent and-independent analysis of faeces. ISME J., 2: 1183-1193.
114. Scanlan, P.D., F. Shanahan and J.R. Marchesi, 2008. Human methanogen diversity and incidence in healthy and diseased colonic groups using mcrA gene analysis. BMC Microbiol., 8: 79-79.
115. Selby, W., P. Pavh, B. Crotty, T. Florin and G. Radford-Smith et al., 2007. Two-year combination antibiotic therapy with clarithromycin, rifabutin and clofazimine for Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology, 132: 2313-2319.
116. Sellon, R.K., S. Tonkonogy, M. Schultz, L.A. Dieleman and W. Grenther et al, 1998. Resident enteric bacteria are necessary for development of spontaneous colitis and immune system activation in interleukin-10-deficient mice. Infect. Immun., 66: 5224-5231.
117. Shaffer, J.L., S. Hughes, B.D. Linaker, R.D. Baker and L.A. Turnberg, 1984. Controlledtrialofrifampicinand ethambutol in Crohn's disease. Gut, 25: 203-205.
118. Shafran, I. and L.K. Johnson, 2005. An open-label evaluation of rifaximin in the treatment of active Crohn's disease. Curr. Med. Res. Opin., 21: 1165-1169.
119. Shafran, I., L. Kugler, F.A. El-Zaatari, S.A. Naser and J. Sandoval, 2002. Open clinical trial of rifabutin and clarithromycin therapy in Crohn's disease. Dig. Liver Dis., 34: 22-28.
120. Sreedhar, S., C.L. Roberts, C.A. Hart, H.M. Martin, S.W. Edwards, J.M. Rhodes and B.J. Campbell, 2008. Replication of colonic Crohn's disease mucosal Escherichia coli isolates within macrophages and their susceptibility to antibiotics. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother., 52: 427-434.
121. Steinhart, A.H., B.G. Feagan, C.J. Wong, M. Vandervoort and S. Mikolainis et al, 2002. Combined budesonide and antibiotic therapy for active Crohn's disease: A randomized controlled trial. Gastroenterology, 123: 33-40.
122. Sutherland, L., J. Singleton, J. Sessions, S. Hanauer and E. Krawitt et al, 1991. Double blind, placebo controlled trial of metronidazole in Crohn's disease. Gut, 32: 1071-1075.
123. Swift, G.L., E.D. Snvastava, R. Stone, RD. Pullan and R.G. Newcombe et al, 1994. Controlled trial of anti-tuberculous chemotherapy for two years in Crohn's disease. Gut, 35: 363-368.
124. Teasley, D.G., D.N Gerding, M.M. Olson, L.R. Peterson and R.L. Gebhard, M.J. Schwartz and J.T. Jr. Lee, 1983. Prospective randomized trial of metronidazole versus van comycin for Clostridium-difficile-associateddiarrhoea and colitis. Lancet, 2: 1043-1046.
125. Terao, S., K. Yamashiro, I. Tamura, T. Hirano, T. Ohkusa and K. Kato, 2011. Antibiotic combination therapy for steroid withdrawal in steroid-dependent ulcerative colitis. Digestion, 83: 198-203.
126. Thia, K.T., U. Mahadevan, B.G. Feagan, C. Wong and A. Cockeram et al., 2009. Ciprofloxacin or metronidazole for the treatment of perianal fistulas in patients with Crohn's disease: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Inflamm. Bowel Dis., 15: 17-24.
127. Thomas, G.A., G.L. Swift, J.T. Green, R.G. Newcombe and C. Braniff-Mathews et al., 1998. Controlled trial of antituberculous chemotherapy in Crohn's disease: A five year follow up study. Gut 42: 497-500.
128. Thompson-Chagoyan, O.C., J. Maldonado and A. Gil, 2005. Aetiology of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): Role of intestinal microbiota and gut-associated lymphoid tissue immune response. Clin. Nutr., 24: 339-352.
129. Travis, S.P., E.F. Stange, M. Lemann, T. Oresland and Y. Chowers et al., 2006. European evidence based consensus on the diagnosis and management of Crohn's disease: Current management. Gut 55: 16-35.
130. Triantafillidis, J.K., E. Merikas and F. Georgopoulos, 2011. Current and emerging drugs for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Drug Des. Devel. Ther., 5: 185-210.
131. Turunen, U.M., M.A. Farkkila, K. Hakala, K. Seppala and A. Sivonen et al., 1998. Long-term treatment of ulcerative colitis with ciprofloxacin: A prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Gastroenterology, 115: 1072-1078.
132. Uehara, T., K. Kato, T. Ohkusa, M. Sugitam, Y. Ishn, N. Nemoto and M. Moriyama, 2010. Efficacy of antibiotic combination therapy in patients with active ulcerative colitis, including refractory or steroid-dependent cases. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol., 25: S62-S66.
133. Ursing, B., T. Aim, F. Barany, I. Bergelin and K. Ganrot-Norlin et al., 1982. A comparative study of metronidazole and sulfasalazine for active Crohn's disease: The cooperative Crohn's disease study in Sweden. II. Result. Gastroenterology, 83: 550-562.
134. Walsh, A., J. Mabee and K. Trivedi, 2011. Inflammatory bowel disease. Prim. Care., 38: 415-432.
135. Wehkamp, J., K. Fellermannand E.F. Stange, 2005. Human deficins in Crohn's disease. Chem. Immunol. Allergy, 86: 42-54.
136. West, R.L., C.J. van der Woude, B.E. Hansen, R.J. Felt-Bersma, A.J. van Tilburg, J.A. Drapers and E.J. Kuipers, 2004. Clinical and endosonographic effect of ciprofloxacin on the treatment of perianal fistulae in Crohn's disease with infliximab: A double-blind placebo-controlled study. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther., 20: 1329-1336.
137. West, R.L., C.J. van der Woude, H.P. Endtz, B.E. Hansen and M. Ouwedijk et al., 2005. Perianal fistulas in Crohn's disease are predominantly colonized by skin flora: Implications for antibiotic treatment? Dig. Dis. Sci.,50: 1260-1263.
138. Williams, H., D. Walker and T.R. Orchard, 2008. Extraintestinal manifestations of inflammatory bowel disease. Curr. Gastroenterol. Rep., 10: 597-605.
139. Yoon, J.E., W.K. Kim, J.S. Lee, K.S. Shin and T.S. Ha, 2011. Antibiotic susceptibility and imaging findings of the causative microorganisms responsible for acute urinary tract infection in children: A five-year single center study. Korean J. Pediatr., 54: 79-85.
140. Zar, F.A., S.R. Bakkanagari, K.M. Moorthi and M.B. Davis, 2007. A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-ass ociateddiarrhea, stratified by disease severity. Clin. Infect. Dis., 45: 302-307.