Evolutionary Developmental Biology and Human Language Evolution: Constraints on Adaptation

Evolutionary Biology

Volumn 39, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 613-637

  Fitch, W Tecumseh ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA   (Austria)

Author keywords

Adaptation; Constraints; Evo devo; Exaptation; Language evolution; Phenotypic plasticity; Spandrel

Indexed keywords

EID: 84870820589     PISSN: 00713260     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11692-012-9162-y     Document Type: Article

References (205)

1. Ahouse, J. C. (1998). The Tragedy of a priori Selectionism: Dennett and Gould on Adaptationism. Biology and Philosophy, 13, 359-391.
2. Alberch, P. (1989). The logic of monsters: Evidence for internal constraint in development and evolution. Geobios, 22, 21-57.
3. Alexander, R. M. (1992). The human machine. London: Natural History Museum Publications.
4. Alexander, R. M. (2004). Bipedal animals, and their differences from humans. Journal of Anatomy, 204, 321-330.
5. Allman, J. M. (1999). Evolving Brains. Scientifc American Library: Distributed by W. H. Freeman and Co, New York.
6. Andrews, P. W., Gangestad, S. W., & Matthews, D. (2002). Adaptationism - how to carry out an exaptationist program. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 25, 489-553.
7. Arbib, M. A. (2005). From monkey-like action recognition to human language: An evolutionary framework for neurolinguistics. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 105-167.
8. Armstrong, D. F., Stokoe, W. C., & Wilcox, S. E. (1995). Gesture and the nature of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9. Aulehla, A., & Pourquié, O. (2008). Oscillating signaling pathways during embryonic development. Current Opinion in Cell Biology, 20, 632-637.
10. Bateson, W. (1894). Materials for the study of variation treated with especial regard to discontinuity in the origin of species. London: Macmillan.
11. Bell, T. (1834). Observations on the neck of the three-toed sloth, Bradypus tridactylus L. Tr. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1, 113-116.
12. Berwick, R. C. (1997). Syntax facit saltum: computation and the genotype and phenotype of language. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 10, 231-249.
13. Bickerton, D. (2010). Adam's tongue. New York: Hill & Wang.
14. Bierwisch, M. (2001). The apparent paradox of language evolution: can Universal Grammar be explained by adaptive selection? In J. Traban & S. Ward (Eds.), New essays on the origin of language (pp. 55-81). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
15. Biewener, A., Soghikian, G., & Crompton, A. (1985). Regulation of respiratory airflow during panting and feeding in the dog. Respiratory Physiology, 61, 185-195.
16. Bonner, J. T. (Ed.). (1982). Evolution and development. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
17. Botha, R. (2011). Constraining the arbirariness of exaptationist accounts of the evolution of language. Lingua, 121, 1552-1563.
18. Bramble, D. M., & Lieberman, D. E. (2004). Endurance running and the evolution of Homo. Nature, 432, 345-352.
19. Breland, K., & Breland, M. (1961). The misbehavior of organisms. American Psychologist, 16, 681-684.
20. Brown, M. C., Hopkins, W. G., & Keynes, R. J. (1991). Essentials of neural development. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
21. Brust, J. (1980). Music and language: Musical alexia and agraphia. Brain, 103, 367-392.
22. Buchholtz, E. A., Booth, A. C., & Webbink, K. E. (2007). Vertebral Anatomy in the Florida Manatee, Trichechus manatus latirostris: A developmental and evolutionary analysis. Anatomical Record, 290, 624-637.
23. Buchholtz, E. A., & Stepien, C. C. (2009). Anatomical transformation in mammals: developmental origin of aberrant cervical anatomy in tree sloths. Evolution and Development, 11, 69-79.
24. Buller, D. J. (2005). Adapting minds: Evolutionary psychology and the persistent quest for human nature. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
25. Buss, D. M., Haselton, M. G., Shackelford, T. K., Bleske, A. L., & Wakefield, J. C. (1998). Adaptations, Exaptations, and Spandrels. American Psychologist, 53, 533-548.
26. Carroll, S. B. (2008). Evo-Devo and an Expanding Evolutionary Synthesis: A Genetic Theory of Morphological Evolution. Cell, 134, 25-36.
27. Carroll, S. B., Grenier, J. K., & Weatherbee, S. D. (2005). From DNA to diversity: Molecular genetics and the evolution of animal design. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science.
28. Charlton, B. D., Reby, D., & McComb, K. (2008). "Effect of combined source F0 and filter (formant) variation on red deer hind responses to male roars " J. Acoustic. Soc. Am., 123, 2936-2943.
29. Chater, N., Reali, F., & Christiansen, M. H. (2009). Restrictions on biological adaptation in language evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 1015-1020.
30. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
31. Chomsky, N. (1990). Language and mind. In D. H. Mellor (Ed.), Ways of communicating (pp. 56-80). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
32. Chomsky, N. (2010). Some simple evo devo theses: How true might they be for language? In R. Larson, V. Deprez, & H. Yamakido (Eds.), The evolution of human language: Biolinguistic Perspectives (pp. 45-62). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
33. Coates, M. I., & Clack, J. A. (1990). Polydactyly in the earliest known tetrapod limbs. Nature, 347, 66-69.
34. Condillac, É. B. (1747/1971). Essai sur l'origine des connaissances humaines (Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints, Gainesville, FL).
35. Constantine-Paton, M., & Law, M. I. (1978). Eye specific termination bands in tecta of three-eyed frogs. Science, 202, 639-641.
36. Corballis, M. C. (2003). From hand to mouth: The gestural origins of language. In: M. Christiansen & S. Kirby (Eds.), Language evolution (pp. 201-218). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
37. Crick, F. H. C. (1968). The origin of the genetic code. Journal of Molecular Biology, 38, 367-379.
38. Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species. London: John Murray.
39. Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. London: John Murray.
40. Darwin, C. (1877). The various contrivances by which orchids are fertilised by insects. London: John Murray.
41. de Boer, B. (2001). The origins of vowel systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
42. De Robertis, E. M. (2008). Evo-Devo: Variations on Ancestral Themes. Cell, 132, 185-195.
43. Deacon, T. W. (1997). The symbolic species: The co-evolution of language and the brain. New York: Norton.
44. Deacon, T. (2003). Universal grammar and semiotic constraints. In M. Christiansen & S. Kirby (Eds.), Language evolution (pp. 111-139). Oxford: Oxford Unviersity Press.
45. Dennett, D. C. (1983). Intentional systems in cognitive ethology: the 'Panglossian paradigm' defended. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 6, 343-390.
46. Dennett, D. C. (1995). Darwin's dangerous idea. New York: Simon & Schuster.
47. Dickinson, M. H., Farley, C. T., Full, R. J., Koehl, M. A. R., Kram, R., & Lehman, S. (2000). How animals move: An integrative view. Science, 288, 100-106.
48. Dobzhansky, T. (1973). Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution. American Biology Teacher, 35, 125-129.
49. Dor, D., & Jablonka, E. (2010). Plasticity and canalization in the evolution of linguistic communication: an evolutionary developmental approach. In R. Larson, V. Deprez, & H. Yamakido (Eds.), The evolution of human language: Biolinguistic perspectives (pp. 135-147). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
50. Doupe, A. J., & Kuhl, P. K. (1999). Birdsong and human speech: Common themes and mechanisms. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 22, 567-631.
51. Dunbar, R. I. M. (2003). The origin and subsequent evolution of language. In M. Christiansen & S. Kirby (Eds.), Language evolution (pp. 219-234). Oxford: Oxford Unviersity Press.
52. Edelman, G. M. (1987). Neural darwinism: The theory of neuronal group selection. New York: Basic Books.
53. Evans, N., & Levinson, S. C. (2009). The myth of language universals: Language diversity and its importance for cognitive science. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 32, 429-448.
54. Finlay, B. L., Darlington, R. B., & Nicastro, N. (2001). Developmental structure in brain evolution. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24, 263-308.
55. Fitch, W. T. (1994). Vocal tract length perception and the evolution of language. Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Dissertation Services.
56. Fitch, W. T. (1997). Vocal tract length and formant frequency dispersion correlate with body size in rhesus macaques. J. Acoustic. Soc. Am., 102, 1213-1222.
57. Fitch, W. T. (2000). "The evolution of speech: a comparative review," Trends Cog. Sci., 4, 258-267.
58. Fitch, W. T. (2002). Comparative vocal production and the evolution of speech: Reinterpreting the descent of the larynx. In A. Wray (Ed.), The transition to language (pp. 21-45). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
59. Fitch, W. T. (2005). The evolution of language: A comparative review. Biology and Philosophy, 20, 193-230.
60. Fitch, W. T. (2006). The biology and evolution of music: A comparative perspective. Cognition, 100, 173-215.
61. Fitch, W. T. (2009a). The Biology & Evolution of Language: "Deep homology" and the Evolution of Innovation. In: M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The cognitive neurosciences IV (pp. 873-883). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
62. Fitch, W. T. (2009b). Prolegomena to a Science of Biolinguistics. In: L. S. Röska-Hardy, & E. M. Neumann-Held (Eds.), Learning from animals? Examining the nature of human uniqueness (pp. 15-44). New York: Psychology Press.
63. Fitch, W. T. (2010). The evolution of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
64. Fitch, W. T. (2011a). The evolution of syntax: An exaptationist perspective. Frontiers in Evolutionary Neuroscience, 3, 1-12.
65. Fitch, W. T. (2011b). Unity and diversity in human language. Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366, 376-388.
66. Fitch, W. T., & Giedd, J. (1999). Morphology and development of the human vocal tract: A study using magnetic resonance imaging. J. Acoustic. Soc. Am., 106, 1511-1522.
67. Fitch, W. T., & Hauser, M. D. (2002). Unpacking "Honesty": Vertebrate vocal production and the evolution of acoustic signals. In: A. M. Simmons, R. F. Fay, & A. N. Popper (Eds.), Acoustic communication (pp. 65-137). New York: Springer.
68. Fitch, W. T., Hauser, M. D., & Chomsky, N. (2005). The Evolution of the Language Faculty: Clarifications and Implications. Cognition, 97, 179-210.
69. Fitch, W. T., & Reby, D. (2001). The descended larynx is not uniquely human. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond B, 268, 1669-1675.
70. Fodor, J. A., & Piatelli-Palmarini, M. (2010). What Darwin got wrong. New York): Farrar Straus & Giroux.
71. Frey, R., & Riede, T. (2003). Sexual dimorphism of the larynx of the Mongolian Gazelle (Procapra gutturosa Pallas, 1777) (Mammalia, Artiodactyla, Bovidae). Zoologischer Anzeiger, 242, 33-62.
72. Galis, F. (1999). Why do almost all mammals have seven cervical vertebrae? Developmental constraints, Hox genes, and cancer. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 285, 19-26.
73. Galis, F., van Dooren, T. J. M., Feuth, J. D., Metz, J. A. J., Witkam, A., Ruinard, S., et al. (2006). Extreme selection in humans against homeotic transformations of cervical vertebrae. Evolution, 60, 2643-2654.
74. Garcia, J., & Koelling, R. A. (1966). Relation of cue to consequences in avoidance learning. Psychonomic Science, 4, 123-124.
75. Gatesy, S. M., & Biewener, A. A. (1991). Bipedal locomotion: effects of speed, size and limb posture in birds and humans. Journal of Zoology, London, 224, 127-147.
76. Gehring, W. J., & Ikeo, K. (1999). Pax 6: mastering eye morphogenesis and eye evolution. Trends in Genetics, 15, 371-377.
77. Geschwind, N. (1970). The organization of language and the brain. Science, 170, 940-944.
78. Geschwind, N., & Kaplan, E. (1962). A human cerebral deconnection syndrome: a preliminary report. Neurology, 50, 1201-1212.
79. Gilbert, S. F. (2003). The morphogenesis of evolutionary developmental biology. International Journal of Developmental Biology, 47, 467-477.
80. Gilbert, S. F., Opitz, J. M., & Raff, R. A. (1996). Resynthesizing evolutionary and developmental biology. Developmental Biology, 173, 357-372.
81. Gomez, C., Özbudak, E. M., Wunderlich, J., Baumann, D., Lewis, J., & Pourquié, O. (2008). Control of segment number in vertebrate embryos. Nature, 454, 335-339.
82. Goodwin, B. (1996). Form and transformation: Generative and relational principles in biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
83. Gottlieb, G. (1992). Individual development and evolution: The genesis of novel behavior. New York, N. Y.: Oxford University Press.
84. Gould, S. J. (1966). Allometry and size in ontogeny and phylogeny. Biological Review, 41, 587-640.
85. Gould, S. J. (1977). Ontogeny and phylogeny. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press.
86. Gould, S. J. (1991). Exaptation: A crucial tool for evolutionary psychology. Journal of Social Issues, 47, 43-65.
87. Gould, S. J. (2002). The structure of evolutionary theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
88. Gould, S. J., & Lewontin, R. C. (1979). The spandrels of San Marco and the panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme. Proceedings of the Royal Society, B, 205, 581-598.
89. Gould, S. J., & Vrba, E. S. (1982). Exaptation - a missing term in the science of form. Paleobiology, 8, 4-15.
90. Grant, P. R. (1986). Ecology and evolution of Darwin's finches. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
91. Graur, D., & Li, W.-H. (2000). Fundamentals of molecular evolution. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer.
92. Griffin, T. M., & Kram, R. (2000). Penguin waddling is not wasteful. Nature, 408, 929.
93. Harvey, P. H., & Pagel, M. D. (1991). The comparative method in evolutionary biology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
94. Hauser, M., Chomsky, N., & Fitch, W. T. (2002). The language faculty: What is it, who has it, and how did it evolve? Science, 298, 1569-1579.
95. Hautier, L., Weisbecker, V., Sánchez-Villagra, M. R., Goswamid, A., & Asher, R. J. (2010). Skeletal development in sloths and the evolution of mammalian vertebral patterning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 18903-18908.
96. Hayama, S., Nakatsukasa, M., & Kunimatsu, Y. (1992). Monkey performance: The development of bipedalism in trained Japanese monkeys. Acta Anatomica Nippon, 67, 169-185.
97. Held, L. I. (2009). Quirks of human anatomy: An Evo-Devo look at the human body. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
98. Henton, C. (1992). The abnormality of male speech. In: G. Wolfin (Ed.), New departures in linguistics New York: Garland Publishing (pp. 27-59).
99. Hewes, G. W. (1973). Primate communication and the gestural origin of language. Current Anthropology, 14, 5-24.
100. Hiiemäe, K. M., & Ardran, G. M. (1968). A cinefluorographic study of mandibular movement during feeding in the rat (Rattus norvegicus). Journal of Zoology (London), 154, 139-154.
101. Hirasaki, E., Ogihara, N., Hamada, Y., Kumakura, H., & Nakatsukasa, M. (2004). Do highly trained monkeys walk like humans? A kinematic study of bipedal locomotion in bipedally trained Japanese macaques. Journal of Human Evolution, 46, 739-750.
102. Hockett, C. F., & Ascher, R. (1964). The human revolution. Current Anthropology, 5, 135-147.
103. Hoekstra, H. E., & Coyne, J. A. (2007). The locus of evolution: Evo-devo and the genetics of adaptation. Evolution, 61, 995-1016.
104. Hutchinson, J. R., & Gatesy, S. M. (2001). Bipedalism, Encyclopedia of Life Sciences, pp. 1-6.
105. Huxley, J. S. (1932). Problems of relative growth. London: Methuen.
106. Ishimatsu, K., Takamatsu, A., & Takeda, H. (2010). Emergence of traveling waves in the zebrafish segmentation clock. Development, 137, 1595-1599.
107. Jackendoff, R. (2002). Foundations of language. New York: Oxford University Press.
108. Jacob, F. (1977). Evolution and tinkering. Science, 196, 1161-1166.
109. Janik, V. M., & Slater, P. B. (1997). Vocal learning in mammals. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 26, 59-99.
110. Jarvis, E. D. (2007). Neural systems for vocal learning in birds and humans: a synopsis. Journal of Ornithology, 148, 35-44.
111. Ji, Q., Luo, Z.-X., Yuan, C.-X., Wible, J. R., Zhang, J.-P., & Georgi, J. A. (2002). The earliest eutherian mammal. Nature, 416, 816-822.
112. Kay, E. D., & Condon, K. (1987). Skeletal changes in the hindlimbs of bipedal rats, (formerly New Anatomist) 218, 1-4.
113. Kimura, M. (1983). The neutral theory of molecular evolution. New York: Cambridge University Press.
114. Kirschner, M., & Gerhart, J. (1998). Evolvability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 95, 8240-8427.
115. Kirschner, M. W., & Gerhart, J. C. (2005). The plausibility of life: Resolving Darwin's dilemma. London: Yale University Press.
116. Laland, K. N., & Brown, G. R. (2002). Sense and nonsense: Evolutionary perspectives on human behaviour. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
117. Lauder, G. V. (1990). Functional morphology and systematics: studying functional patterns in an historical context. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 21, 317-340.
118. Leakey, M. D., & Hay, R. L. (1979). Pliocene footprints in the Laetolil beds at Laetoli, northern Tanzania. Nature, 278, 317-323.
119. Levy, M., & Susswein, A. J. (1999). Separate Effects of a Classical Conditioning Procedure on Respiratory Pumping, Swimming, and Inking in Aplysia fasciata. Learning and Memory, 6, 21-36.
120. Lewis, E. B. (1978). A gene complex controlling segmentation in Drosophila. Nature, 276, 565-570.
121. Lewis, J. (2008). From Signals to Patterns: Space, Time, and Mathematics in Developmental Biology. Science, 322, 399-403.
122. Lieberman, P. (1975). On the origins of language. New York: Macmillan.
123. Lieberman, P. (1984). The biology and evolution of language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
124. Lieberman, P. (2000). Human language and our reptilian brain: The subcortical bases of speech, syntax and thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
125. Lieberman, P. (2007). Human speech: Anatomical and neural bases. Current Anthropology, 48, 39-66.
126. Lieberman, P., & Crelin, E. S. (1971). On the speech of Neanderthal man. Linguistic Inquiry, 2, 203-222.
127. Lieberman, D. E., McCarthy, R. C., Hiiemae, K., & Palmer, J. B. (2001). Ontogeny of postnatal hyoid and larynx descent in humans. Arc. Oral Biol., 46, 117-128.
128. Liem, K. (1973). Evolutionary strategies and morphological innovations: Cichlid pharyngeal jaws. Systematic Zoology, 22, 425-441.
129. Liljencrants, J., & Lindblom, B. (1972). Numerical simulations of vowel quality systems: the role of perceptual contrast. Language, 48, 839-862.
130. Lovejoy, C. O. (1981). The origin of man. Science, 211, 341-350.
131. Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1974). The psychology of sex differences. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
132. MacNeilage, P. F. (1998). The frame/content theory of evolution of speech production. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 499-546.
133. Marler, P. (2000). Origins of music and speech: Insights from animals, In: N. L. Wallin, B. Merker, & S. Brown (Eds.), The origins of music (pp. 31-48). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
134. Matsunaga, E., & Okanoya, K. (2009). Evolution and diversity in avian vocal system: An Evo-Devo model from the morphological and behavioral perspectives. Development Growth and Differentiation, 51, 355-367.
135. Maynard Smith, J. (1978a). Optimization theory in evolution. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 9, 31-56.
136. Maynard Smith, J. (1978b). Optimization Theory in Evolution. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 9, 31-56.
137. Maynard Smith, J., Burian, R., Kauffman, S., Alberch, P., Campbell, J., Goodwin, B., et al. (1985). Developmental constraints and evolution. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 60, 265-287.
138. Maynard Smith, J., & Haigh, J. (1974). The hitchhiking effect of a favourable gene. Genetic Research, 23, 23-35.
139. Mithen, S. (2005). The singing neanderthals: The origins of music, language, mind, and body. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
140. Montague, R. (1970). Universal Grammar. Theoria. 36, 373-398.
141. Moss, M. L. (1961). Rotation of the otic capsule in bipedal rats. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 19, 301-307.
142. Nakatsukasa, M., Hayama, S., & Preuschoft, H. (1995). Postcranial skeleton of a macaque trained for bipedal standing and walking and implications for functional adaptation. Folia Primatologica, 64, 1-29.
143. Narita, Y., & Kuratani, S. (2005). Evolution of the vertebral formulae in mammals: A perspective on developmental constraints. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 304B, 91-106.
144. Niemitz, C. (2010). The evolution of the upright posture and gait-a review and a new synthesis. Naturwissenschaften, 97, 241-263.
145. Nottebohm, F. (1975). A zoologists's view of some language phenomena with particular emphasis on vocal learning, In: E. H. Lenneberg, & E. Lenneberg (Eds.), Foundations of language development: a multidisciplinary approach. New York: Academic Press.
146. Nottebohm, F. (1976). Vocal tract and brain: A search for evolutionary bottlenecks. Ann. New York Acad. Sci., 280, 643-649.
147. Nowak, M., Komarova, N. L., & Niyogi, P. (2001). Evolution of universal grammar. Science, 291, 114-118.
148. Okanoya, K. (2007). Language, evolution and an emergent property. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 17, 1-6.
149. Okanoya, K. (2010). Biological pre-adaptation for language emergence. Kyoto, Japan: EELC 2010-Emergence and Evolution of Linguistic Communication, EELC.
150. Oudeyer, P.-Y. (2005). The self-organization of speech sounds. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 233, 435-449.
151. Paley, W. (1826). Natural theology or evidences of the existence and attributes of the deity collected from the appearances of nature. London: Hallowell.
152. Pievani, T., & Serrelli, E. (2011). Exaptation in human evolution: how to test adaptive vs exaptive evolutionary hypotheses. Journal of Anthropological Sciences, 89, 9-23.
153. Pinker, S. (1997). How the mind works. New York: Norton.
154. Pinker, S., & Bloom, P. (1990). Natural language and natural selection. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 13, 707-784.
155. Pinker, S., & Jackendoff, R. (2005). The faculty of language: what's special about it? Cognition, 95, 201-236.
156. Poe, S., Goheen, J. R., & Hulebak, E. P. (2007). Convergent exaptation and adaptation in solitary island lizards. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 274, 2231-2237.
157. Pough, F. H., Heiser, J. B., & McFarland, W. N. (1996). Vertebrate life. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
158. Pourquié, O. (2003). The segmentation clock: Converting embryonic time into spatial pattern. Science, 301, 328-330.
159. Premack, D. (2007). Human and animal cognition: Continuity and discontinuity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 13861-13867.
160. Purves, D., & Lichtman, J. W. (1980). Elimination of synapses in the developing nervous system. Science, 210, 153-157.
161. Raff, R. A. (1996). The shape of life: Genes, development, and the evolution of animal form. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
162. Raff, R. A., & Kaufman, T. C. (1983). Embryos, genes and evolution. New York: Macmillan.
163. Ralls, K., Fiorelli, P., & Gish, S. (1985). Vocalizations and vocal mimicry in captive harbor seals, Phoca vitulina. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 63, 1050-1056.
164. Reby, D., & McComb, K. (2003). Anatomical constraints generate honesty: acoustic cues to age and weight in the roars of red deer stags. Animal Behaviour, 65, 519-530.
165. Richardson, R. C. (2007). Evolutionary psychology as maladapted psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
166. Ridley, M. (1997). Evolution. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
167. Riede, T., & Titze, I. R. (2008). Vocal fold elasticity of the Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni)-Producing high fundamental frequency vocalization with a very long vocal fold. Journal of Experimental Biology, 211, 2144-2154.
168. Rodman, P. S., & McHenry, H. M. (1980). Bioenergetics and the origin of hominid bipedalism. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 52, 103-106.
169. Rubin, C.-J., et al. (2010). Whole-genome resequencing reveals loci under selection during chicken domestication. Nature, 464, 587-591.
170. Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., Murphy, J., Sevcik, R. A., Brakke, K. E., Williams, S. L., & Rumbaugh, D. M. (1993). Language comprehension in ape and child. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58, 1-221.
171. Shubin, N. (2008). Your inner fish: A journey into the 3. 5 billion-year history of the human body. London: Penguin Books.
172. Shubin, N., Tabin, C., & Carroll, S. (1997). Fossils, genes and the evolution of animal limbs. Nature, 388, 639-648.
173. Shubin, N., Tabin, C., & Carroll, S. (2009). Deep homology and the origins of evolutionary novelty. Nature, 457, 818-823.
174. Simpson, G. G. (1949). The meaning of evolution. New Haven: Yale University Press.
175. Slijper, E. J. (1942). Biologic-anatomical investigations on the bipedal gait and upright posture in mammals, with special reference to a little goat, born without forelegs. Proc. Nederl. Akad. Wet., 45(288-295), 407-415.
176. Smith, D. R. R., Patterson, R. D., Turner, R., Kawahara, H., & Irino, T. (2005). The processing and perception of size information in speech sounds. J. Acoustic. Soc. Am., 117, 305-318.
177. Sober, E. (1993). The nature of selection: evolutionary theory in philosophical focus. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
178. Solounias, N. (1999). The remarkable anatomy of the giraffe's neck. Journal of Zoology, 247, 257-268.
179. Starck, D. (1979). Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbeltiere. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
180. Symons, D. (1992). On the use and misuse of Darwinism in the study of human behavior. In J. H. Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (pp. 137-159). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
181. Számadó, S., & Szathmary, E. (2006). Selective scenarios for the emergence of natural language. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 21, 555-561.
182. Tattersall, I. (1999). Becoming human: Evolution and human uniqueness. New York: Harcourt-Brace.
183. Tattersall, I. (2004). What happened in the origin of human consciousness? Anatomical Record, 276B, 19-26.
184. Taylor, A. M., Reby, D., & McComb, K. (2011). Cross Modal Perception of Body Size in Domestic Dogs (Canis familiaris). PLoS ONE, 6, e1706.
185. Taylor, C. R., & Rowntree, V. J. (1973). Running on two or on four legs: Which consumes more energy? Science, 179, 186-187.
186. Taylor, C. R., Schmidt-Nielsen, K., & Raab, J. L. (1970). Scaling of energetic cost of running to body size in mammals. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 219, 1104-1107.
187. Thompson, D. A. W. (1948). On growth and form. New York: Cambridge University Press.
188. Tinbergen, N. (1963). On aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 20, 410-433.
189. Tomasello, M. (2005). Comment on Everrett (2005). Current Anthropology, 46, 640-641.
190. Tomasello, M., & Call, J. (2007). Ape gestures and the origins of language. In J. Call, & M. Tomasello (Eds.), The gestural communication of apes and monkeys (pp. 221-239). London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
191. Tomasello, M., Carpenter, M., Call, J., Behne, T., & Moll, H. (2005). Understanding and sharing intentions: The origins of cultural cognition. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 28, 675-735.
192. Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (1990). The past explains the present: emotional adaptations and the structure of ancestral environments. Ethol. Sociobiol., 11, 375-424.
193. Turing, A. M. (1952). The chemical basis of morphogenesis. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 237(Series B), 37-72.
194. van Valin, R. D. (2008). Some remarks on universal grammar. In E. Lieven & J. Guo (Eds.), Crosslinguistic approaches to the study of language (pp. 311-320). Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.
195. Wagner, A. (2008). Neutralism and selectionism: A network-based reconciliation. Nature Reviews Genetics, 9, 965-974.
196. Walls, G. L. (1942). The vertebrate eye and its adaptive radiation. New York: Hafner.
197. Walters, E. T., Carew, T. J., & Kandel, E. R. (1981). Associative Learning in Aplysia: evidence for conditioned fear in an invertebrate. Science, 211, 504-506.
198. Weissengruber, G. E., Forstenpointner, G., Peters, G., Kübber-Heiss, A., & Fitch, W. T. (2002). Hyoid apparatus and pharynx in the lion (Panthera leo), jaguar (Panthera onca), tiger (Panthera tigris), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), and domestic cat (Felis silvestris f. catus). Journal of Anatomy, 201, 195-209.
199. Whyte, L. L. (1965). Internal factors in evolution. London: Tavistock.
200. Williams, G. C. (1966a). Adaptation and natural selection: A critique of some current evolutionary thought. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
201. Williams, G. C. (1966b). Adaptation and natural selection. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press.
202. Williamson, S. H., Hubisz, M., Clark, A. G., Payseur, B. A., Bustamante, C., & Nielsen, R. (2007). Localizing recent adaptive evolution in the human genome. PLoS Genetics, 3, e90.
203. Wolpert, L. (1969). Positional Information and the Spatial Pattern of Cellular Differentiation. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 25, 1-47.
204. Yang, C. D. (2004). Universal grammar, statistics or both? Trends Cog Sci, 8, 451-456.
205. Young, J. Z. (1981). The life of vertebrates. Oxford: Oxford University Press.