Origins of delusions in Alzheimer's disease

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

Volumn 36, Issue 10, 2012, Pages 2274-2287

  Reeves, Suzanne J ^a   Gould, Rebecca L ^a   Powell, John F ^a   Howard, Robert J ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Alzheimer's; Corticostriatal; Delusions; Dopamine; Genetics; Neurochemistry; Neuroimaging; Neuropathology; Neuropsychology

Indexed keywords

DOPAMINE 2 RECEPTOR; DOPAMINE 3 RECEPTOR; MUSCARINIC RECEPTOR;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; BRAIN METABOLISM; BRAIN PERFUSION; CHOLINERGIC SYSTEM; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DELUSION; DELUSIONAL MISIDENTIFICATION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DOPAMINERGIC SYSTEM; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FUNCTIONAL NEUROIMAGING; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; HUMAN; NEUROPATHOLOGY; ORBITAL CORTEX; PERSECUTORY DELUSION; PHENOMENOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

EID: 84867894381     PISSN: 01497634     EISSN: 18737528     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.08.001     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. Aalten, P., Jolles, J., de Vugt, M.E., Verhey, F.R., 2007. The influence of neuropsychological functioning on neuropsychiatric problems in dementia. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 19, 50-56.
2. Alzheimer, A., 1906. Über einen eigenartigen schweren Erkrankungsprozeß der Hirnrinde. Neurologisches Centralblatt 23, 1129-1136.
3. Amodio, D.M., Frith, C.D., 2006. Meeting of minds: the medial frontal cortex and social cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 7, 268-277.
4. Ballard, C., Bannister, C., Graham, C., Oyebode, F., Wilcock, G., 1995. Associations of psychotic symptoms in dementia sufferers. British Journal of Psychiatry 167, 537-540.
5. Bassiony, M.M., Lyketsos, C.G., 2003. Delusions and hallucinations in Alzheimer's disease: review of the brain decade. Psychosomatics 44, 388-401.
6. Bassiony, M.M., Steinberg, M.S., Warren, A., Rosenblatt, A., Baker, A.S., Lyketsos, C.G., 2000. Delusions and hallucinations in Alzheimer's disease: prevalence and clinical correlates. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 15, 99-107.
7. Berrios, G.E., 1989. Non-cognitive symptoms and the diagnosis of dementia. Historical and clinical aspects. British Journal of Psychiatry-supplement 4, 11-16.
8. Blackwood, N.J., Howard, R.J., Bentall, R.P., Murray, R.M., 2001. Cognitive neuropsychiatric models of persecutory delusions. American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 527-539.
9. Borroni, B., Grassi, M., Agosti, C., Costanzi, C., Archetti, S., Franzoni, S., Caltagirone, C., Di Luca, M., Caimi, L., Padovani, A., 2006. Genetic correlates of behavioral endophenotypes in Alzheimer disease: role of COMT, 5-HTTLPR and APOE polymorphisms. Neurobiology of Aging 27, 1595-1603.
10. Borroni, B., Grassi, M., Costanzi, C., Zanetti, M., Archetti, S., Franzoni, S., Caimi, L., Padovani, A., 2007. Haplotypes in cathechol-O-methyltransferase gene confer increased risk for psychosis in Alzheimer disease. Neurobiology of Aging 28, 1231-1238.
11. Bruen, P.D., McGeown, W.J., Shanks, M.F., Venneri, A., 2008. Neuroanatomical correlates of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's disease. Brain 131, 2455-2463.
12. Burns, A., Jacoby, R., Levy, R., 1990a. Psychiatric phenomena in Alzheimer's disease. I: disorders of thought content. British Journal of Psychiatry 157, 72-76, 92-74.
13. Burns, A., Jacoby, R., Levy, R., 1990b. Psychiatric phenomena in Alzheimer's disease. II: disorders of perception. British Journal of Psychiatry 157, 76-81, 92-74.
14. Bylsma, F., Folstein, M.F., Devanand, D.P., Richards, M., Bello, J., Albert, M., Stern, Y., 1994. Delusions and patterns of cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology 7, 98-103.
15. Cabeza, R., Ciaramelli, E., Olson, I.R., Moscovitch, M., 2008. The parietal cortex and episodic memory: an attentional account. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 9, 613-625.
16. Carr, D.B., Sesack, S.R., 2000. Projections from the rat prefrontal cortex to the ventral tegmental area: target specificity in the synaptic associations with mesoaccumbens and mesocortical neurons. Journal of Neuroscience 20, 3864-3873.
17. Carson, R., Craig, D., Hart, D., Todd, S., McGuinness, B., Johnston, J.A., O'Neill, F.A., Ritchie, C.W., Passmore, A.P., 2008. Genetic variation in the alpha 7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor is associated with delusional symptoms in Alzheimer's disease. Neuromolecular Medicine 10, 377-384.
18. Casanova, M.F., Starkstein, S.E., Jellinger, K.A., 2011. Clinicopathological correlates of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. Acta Neuropathologica 122, 117-135.
19. Cassimjee, N., 2008. Psychosis in Alzheimer's disease: prevalence, clinical characteristics, symptom co-morbidity, and aetiology. South African Journal of Psychology 38, 95-115.
20. Cauda, F., D'Agata, F., Sacco, K., Duca, S., Geminiani, G., Vercelli, A., 2011. Functional connectivity of the insula in the resting brain. Neuroimage 55, 8-23.
21. Chan, R.C., Di, X., McAlonan, G.M., Gong, Q.Y., 2011. Brain anatomical abnormalities in high-risk individuals, first-episode, and chronic schizophrenia: an activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis of illness progression. Schizophrenia Bulletin 37, 177-188.
22. Chen, S.T., Sultzer, D.L., Hinkin, C.H., Mahler, M.E., Cummings, J.L., 1998. Executive dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease: association with neuropsychiatric symptoms and functional impairment. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 10, 426-432.
23. Coltheart, M., 2010. The neuropsychology of delusions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1191, 16-26.
24. Cook, S.E., Miyahara, S., Bacanu, S.A., Perez-Madrinan, G., Lopez, O.L., Kaufer, D.I., Nimgaonkar, V.L., Wisniewski, S.R., DeKosky, S.T., Sweet, R.A., 2003. Psychotic symptoms in Alzheimer disease: evidence for subtypes. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 11, 406-413.
25. Corlett, P.R., Taylor, J.R., Wang, X.J., Fletcher, P.C., Krystal, J.H., 2010. Toward a neurobiology of delusions. Progress in Neurobiology 92, 345-369.
26. Craig, D., Hart, D.J., McCool, K., McIlroy, S.P., Passmore, A.P., 2004. The interleukin 1beta gene promoter polymorphism (-511) acts as a risk factor for psychosis in Alzheimer's dementia. Annals of Neurology 56, 121-124.
27. Cummings, J., 1992. Psychosis in neurologic diseases: neurobiology and pathogenesis. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology 5, 144-150.
28. Cummings, J., Victoroff, J., 1990. Noncognitive neuropsychiatric syndromes in Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology 3, 140-158.
29. Cummings, J.L., Back, C., 1998. The cholinergic hypothesis of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 6, S64-S78.
30. Cummings, J.L., Kaufer, D., 1996. Neuropsychiatric aspects of Alzheimer's disease: the cholinergic hypothesis revisited. Neurology 47, 876-883.
31. De-Michele-Sweet, M., Klei, L., Devlin, B., Ferrell, R.E., Weamer, E.A., Emanuel, J.E., Lopez, O.L., Sweet, R.A., 2011. No association of psychosis in Alzheimer disease with neurodegenerative pathway genes. Neurobiology of Aging 32 (555), e9-11.
32. Demichele-Sweet, M.A., Lopez, O.L., Sweet, R.A., 2011. Psychosis in Alzheimer's disease in the national Alzheimer's disease coordinating center uniform data set: clinical correlates and association with apolipoprotein e. International Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 2011, 926597.
33. DeMichele-Sweet, M.A., Sweet, R.A., 2010. Genetics of psychosis in Alzheimer's disease: a review. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 19, 761-780.
34. Deutsch, L.H., Bylsma, F.W., Rovner, B.W., Steele, C., Folstein, M.F., 1991. Psychosis and physical aggression in probable Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Psychiatry 148, 1159-1163.
35. Devanand, D.P., Jacobs, D.M., Tang, M.X., Del Castillo-Castaneda, C., Sano, M., Marder, K., Bell, K., Bylsma, F.W., Brandt, J., Albert, M., Stern, Y., 1997. The course of psychopathologic features in mild to moderate Alzheimer disease. Archives of General Psychiatry 54, 257-263.
36. Devanand, D.P., Miller, L., Richards, M., Marder, K., Bell, K., Mayeux, R., Stern, Y., 1992. The Columbia University Scale for psychopathology in Alzheimer's disease. Archives of Neurology 49, 371-376.
37. Di Maria, E., Bonvicini, C., Bonimini, C., Alberici, A., Zanetti, O., Gennarelli, M., 2009. Genetic variation in the G720/G30 gene locus (DAOA) influences the occurrence of psychotic symptoms in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 18, 953-960.
38. Emanuel, J.E., Lopez, O.L., Houck, P.R., Becker, J.T., Weamer, E.A., Demichele-Sweet, M.A., Kuller, L., Sweet, R.A., 2011. Trajectory of cognitive decline as a predictor of psychosis in early Alzheimer disease in the cardiovascular health study. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 19, 160-168.
39. Forstl, H., Burns, A., Jacoby, R., Levy, R., 1991. Neuroanatomical correlates of clinical misidentification and misperception in senile dementia of the Alzheimer type. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 52, 268-271.
40. Forstl, H., Burns, A., Levy, R., Cairns, N., 1994. Neuropathological correlates of psychotic phenomena in confirmed Alzheimer's disease. British Journal of Psychiatry 165, 53-59.
41. Fukuhara, R., Ikeda, M., Nebu, A., Kikuchi, T., Maki, N., Hokoishi, K., Shigenobu, K., Komori, K., Tanabe, H., 2001. Alteration of rCBF in Alzheimer's disease patients with delusions of theft. Neuroreport 12, 2473-2476.
42. Gao, M., Liu, C.L., Yang, S., Jin, G.Z., Bunney, B.S., Shi, W.X., 2007. Functional coupling between the prefrontal cortex and dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area. Journal of Neuroscience 27, 5414-5421.
43. Gerber, D.J., Sotnikova, T.D., Gainetdinov, R.R., Huang, S.Y., Caron, M.G., Tonegawa, S., 2001. Hyperactivity, elevated dopaminergic transmission, and response to amphetamine in M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor-deficient mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 98, 15312-15317.
44. Geroldi, C., Akkawi, N.M., Galluzzi, S., Ubezio, M., Binetti, G., Zanetti, O., Trabucchi, M., Frisoni, G.B., 2000. Temporal lobe asymmetry in patients with Alzheimer's disease with delusions. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 69, 187-191.
45. Go, R.C., Perry, R.T., Wiener, H., Bassett, S.S., Blacker, D., Devlin, B., Sweet, R.A., 2005. Neuregulin-1 polymorphism in late onset Alzheimer's disease families with psychoses. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics 139B, 28-32.
46. Gormley, N., Rizwan, M.R., 1998. Prevalence and clinical correlates of psychotic symptoms in Alzheimer's disease. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 13, 410-414.
47. Greene, J.G., Smith, R., Gardiner, M., Timbury, G.C., 1982. Measuring behavioural disturbance of elderly demented patients in the community and its effects on relatives: a factor analytic study. Age and Ageing 11, 121-126.
48. Gurevich, E.V., Bordelon, Y., Shapiro, R.M., Arnold, S.E., Gur, R.E., Joyce, J.N., 1997. Mesolimbic dopamine D3 receptors and use of antipsychotics in patients with schizophrenia. A postmortem study. Archives of General Psychiatry 54, 225-232.
49. Harciarek, M., Kertesz, A., 2008. The prevalence of misidentification syndromes in neurodegenerative diseases. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders 22, 163-169.
50. Harwood, D.G., Barker, W.W., Ownby, R.L., Duara, R., 1999. Prevalence and correlates of Capgras syndrome in Alzheimer's disease. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 14, 415-420.
51. Heinik, J., Solomesh, I., Shein, V., Mester, R., Bleich, A., Becker, D., 2001. Correlation between clock-drawing test and paranoid and delusional ideation in dementia of the Alzheimer's type. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 16, 735-736.
52. Hirono, N., Mori, E., Ishii, K., Kitagaki, H., Sasaki, M., Ikejiri, Y., Imamura, T., Shimomura, T., Ikeda, M., Yamashita, H., 1998. Alteration of regional cerebral glucose utilization with delusions in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 10, 433-439.
53. Hollingworth, P., Sweet, R., Sims, R., Harold, D., Russo, G., Abraham, R., Stretton, A., Jones, N., Gerrish, A., Chapman, J., Ivanov, D., Moskvina, V., Lovestone, S., Priotsi, P., Lupton, M., Brayne, C., Gill, M., Lawlor, B., Lynch, A., Craig, D., McGuinness, B., Johnston, J., Holmes, C., Livingston, G., Bass, N.J., Gurling, H., McQuillin, A., Holmans, P., Jones, L., Devlin, B., Klei, L., Barmada, M.M., Demirci, F.Y., Dekosky, S.T., Lopez, O.L., Passmore, P., Owen, M.J., O'Donovan, M.C., Mayeux, R., Kamboh, M.I., Williams, J., 2011. Genome-wide association study of Alzheimer's disease with psychotic symptoms. Molecular Psychiatry, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/mp.2011.125.
54. Howanitz, E., Bajulaiye, R., Losonczy, M., 1995. Magnetic resonance imaging correlates of psychosis in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 183, 548-549.
55. Howes, O.D., Kapur, S., 2009. The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: version III - the final common pathway. Schizophrenia Bulletin 35, 549-562.
56. Hwang, J.P., Yang, C.H., Tsai, S.J., 2003. Phantom boarder symptom in dementia. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 18, 417-420.
57. Ichikawa, J., Chung, Y.C., Li, Z., Dai, J., Meltzer, H.Y., 2002. Cholinergic modulation of basal and amphetamine-induced dopamine release in rat medial prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens. Brain Research 958, 176-184.
58. Ikeda, M., Shigenobu, K., Fukuhara, R., Hokoishi, K., Nebu, A., Maki, N., Nomura, M., Komori, K., Tanabe, H., 2003. Delusions of Japanese patients with Alzheimer's disease. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 18, 527-532.
59. Ismail, Z., Nguyen, M.Q., Fischer, C.E., Schweizer, T.A., Mulsant, B.H., Mamo, D., 2011. Neurobiology of delusions in Alzheimer's disease. Current Psychiatry Reports 13, 211-218.
60. Jeste, D.V., Blazer, D., Casey, D., Meeks, T., Salzman, C., Schneider, L., Tariot, P., Yaffe, K., 2008. ACNP white paper: update on use of antipsychotic drugs in elderly persons with dementia. Neuropsychopharmacology 33, 957-970.
61. Jeste, D.V., Finkel, S.I., 2000. Psychosis of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias. Diagnostic criteria for a distinct syndrome. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 8, 29-34.
62. Jeste, D.V., Wragg, R.E., Salmon, D.P., Harris, M.J., Thal, L.J., 1992. Cognitive deficits of patients with Alzheimer's disease with and without delusions. American Journal of Psychiatry 149, 184-189.
63. Kapur, S., 2003. Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: a framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 13-23.
64. Kestler, L.P., Walker, E., Vega, E.M., 2001. Dopamine receptors in the brains of schizophrenia patients: a meta-analysis of the findings. Behavioural Pharmacology 12, 355-371.
65. Kotrla, K.J., Chacko, R.C., Harper, R.G., Jhingran, S., Doody, R., 1995. SPECT findings on psychosis in Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Psychiatry 152, 1470-1475.
66. Kunishio, K., Haber, S.N., 1994. Primate cingulostriatal projection: limbic striatal versus sensorimotor striatal input. Journal of Comparative Neurology 350, 337-356.
67. Lai, M.K., Lai, O.F., Keene, J., Esiri, M.M., Francis, P.T., Hope, T., Chen, C.P., 2001. Psychosis of Alzheimer's disease is associated with elevated muscarinic M2 binding in the cortex. Neurology 57, 805-811.
68. Laruelle, M., 1998. Imaging dopamine transmission in schizophrenia. A review and meta-analysis. Quarterly Journal of Nuclear Medicine 42, 211-221.
69. Laruelle, M., 2000. Imaging synaptic neurotransmission with in vivo binding competition techniques: a critical review. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 20, 423-451.
70. Laruelle, M., Abi-Dargham, A., Gil, R., Kegeles, L., Innis, R., 1999. Increased dopamine transmission in schizophrenia: relationship to illness phases. Biological Psychiatry 46, 56-72.
71. Lee, D.Y., Choo, I.H., Kim, K.W., Jhoo, J.H., Youn, J.C., Lee, U.Y., Woo, J.I., 2006. White matter changes associated with psychotic symptoms in Alzheimer's disease patients. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 18, 191-198.
72. Lee, E., Akanuma, K., Meguro, M., Ishii, H., Yamaguchi, S., Meguro, K., 2007a. Confabulations in remembering past and planning future are associated with psychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's disease. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 22, 949-956.
73. Lee, E., Kinomura, S., Meguro, K., Akanuma, K., Meguro, M., Fukuda, H., 2009. Confabulations on episodic and semantic memory questions are associated with different neurologic backgrounds in Alzheimer disease. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology 22, 81-88.
74. Lee, E., Meguro, K., Hashimoto, R., Meguro, M., Ishii, H., Yamaguchi, S., Mori, E., 2007b. Confabulations in episodic memory are associated with delusions in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology 20, 34-40.
75. Lesh, T.A., Niendam, T.A., Minzenberg, M.J., Carter, C.S., 2011. Cognitive control deficits in schizophrenia: mechanisms and meaning. Neuropsychopharmacology 36, 316-338.
76. Lopez, O.L., Becker, J.T., Brenner, R.P., Rosen, J., Bajulaiye, O.I., Reynolds 3rd, C.F., 1991. Alzheimer's disease with delusions and hallucinations: neuropsychological and electroencephalographic correlates. Neurology 41, 906-912.
77. Malloy, P.F., Richardson, E.D., 1994. The frontal lobes and content-specific delusions. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 6, 455-466.
78. Matsuoka, T., Narumoto, J., Shibata, K., Okamura, A., Nakamura, K., Okuyama, C., Nishimura, T., Fukui, K., 2010. Insular hypoperfusion correlates with the severity of delusions in individuals with Alzheimer's disease. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders 29, 287-293.
79. Mattsson, A., Olson, L., Svensson, T.H., Schilstrom, B., 2007. Cortical cholinergic deficiency enhances amphetamine-induced dopamine release in the accumbens but not striatum. Experimental Neurology 208, 73-79.
80. Mattsson, A., Pernold, K., Ogren, S.O., Olson, L., 2004. Loss of cortical acetylcholine enhances amphetamine-induced locomotor activity. Neuroscience 127, 579-591.
81. McGeer, P.L., McGeer, E.G., Hattori, T., 1977. Dopamine-acetylcholine-GABA neuronal linkages in the extrapyramidal and limbic systems. Advances in Biochemical Psychopharmacology 16, 397-402.
82. Mega, M.S., Lee, L., Dinov, I.D., Mishkin, F., Toga, A.W., Cummings, J.L., 2000. Cerebral correlates of psychotic symptoms in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 69, 167-171.
83. Mentis, M.J., Weinstein, E.A., Horwitz, B., McIntosh, A.R., Pietrini, P., Alexander, G.E., Furey, M., Murphy, D.G., 1995. Abnormal brain glucose metabolism in the delusional misidentification syndromes: a positron emission tomography study in Alzheimer disease. Biological Psychiatry 38, 438-449.
84. Merriam, A.E., Aronson, M.K., Gaston, P., Wey, S.L., Katz, I., 1988. The psychiatric symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 36, 7-12.
85. Middle, F., Pritchard, A.L., Handoko, H., Haque, S., Holder, R., Bentham, P., Lendon, C.L., 2010. No association between neuregulin 1 and psychotic symptoms in Alzheimer's disease patients. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 20, 561-567.
86. Migliorelli, R., Petracca, G., Teson, A., Sabe, L., Leiguarda, R., Starkstein, S.E., 1995. Neuropsychiatric and neuropsychological correlates of delusions in Alzheimer's disease. Psychological Medicine 25, 505-513.
87. Mizrahi, R., Starkstein, S.E., Jorge, R., Robinson, R.G., 2006. Phenomenology and clinical correlates of delusions in Alzheimer disease. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 14, 573-581.
88. Moran, E.K., Becker, J.A., Satlin, A., Lyoo, I.K., Fischman, A.J., Johnson, K.A., 2008. Psychosis of Alzheimer's disease: gender differences in regional perfusion. Neurobiology of Aging 29, 1218-1225.
89. Mukaetova-Ladinska, E.B., Harrington, C.R., Roth, M., Wischik, C.M., 1993. Biochemical and anatomical redistribution of tau protein in Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Pathology 143, 565-578.
90. Murayama, N., Iseki, E., Endo, T., Nagashima, K., Yamamoto, R., Ichimiya, Y., Arai, H., Sato, K., 2009. Risk factors for delusion of theft in patients with Alzheimer's disease showing mild dementia in Japan. Aging and Mental Health 13, 563-568.
91. Nagata, T., Ishii, K., Ito, T., Aoki, K., Ehara, Y., Kada, H., Furukawa, H., Tsumura, M., Shinagawa, S., Kasahara, H., Nakayama, K., 2009. Correlation between a reduction in frontal assessment battery scores and delusional thoughts in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 63, 449-454.
92. Nakano, S., Yamashita, F., Matsuda, H., Kodama, C., Yamada, T., 2006. Relationship between delusions and regional cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer's disease. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders 21, 16-21.
93. Paulsen, J.S., Ready, R.E., Stout, J.C., Salmon, D.P., Thal, L.J., Grant, I., Jeste, D.V., 2000a. Neurobehaviors and psychotic symptoms in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 6, 815-820.
94. Paulsen, J.S., Salmon, D.P., Thal, L.J., Romero, R., Weisstein-Jenkins, C., Galasko, D., Hofstetter, C.R., Thomas, R., Grant, I., Jeste, D.V., 2000b. Incidence of and risk factors for hallucinations and delusions in patients with probable AD. Neurology 54, 1965-1971.
95. Pearlson, G.D., Wong, D.F., Tune, L.E., Ross, C.A., Chase, G.A., Links, J.M., Dannals, R.F., Wilson, A.A., Ravert, H.T., Wagner Jr., H.N., et al., 1995. In vivo D2 dopamine receptor density in psychotic and nonpsychotic patients with bipolar disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 52, 471-477.
96. Perez-Madrinan, G., Cook, S.E., Saxton, J.A., Miyahara, S., Lopez, O.L., Kaufer, D.I., Aizenstein, H.J., DeKosky, S.T., Sweet, R.A., 2004. Alzheimer disease with psychosis: excess cognitive impairment is restricted to the misidentification subtype. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 12, 449-456.
97. Ponton, M., Darcourt, J., Miller, B.L., Cummings, J.L., Schumann, S.W., Maen, I., 1995. Psychometric and SPECT studies in Alzheimer's disease with and without delusions. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology 8, 264-270.
98. Rabins, P.V., Mace, N.L., Lucas, M.J., 1982. The impact of dementia on the family. JAMA 248, 333-335.
99. Reeves, S., Brown, R., Howard, R., Grasby, P., 2009. Increased striatal dopamine (D2/D3) receptor availability and delusions in Alzheimer disease. Neurology 72, 528-534.
100. Reeves, S., Mehta, M., Howard, R., Grasby, P., Brown, R., 2010. The dopaminergic basis of cognitive and motor performance in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiology of Disease 37, 477-482.
101. Reisberg, B., Borenstein, J., Salob, S.P., Ferris, S.H., Franssen, E., Georgotas, A., 1987. Behavioral symptoms in Alzheimer's disease: phenomenology and treatment. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 48 (SUPPL.), 9-15.
102. Ropacki, S.A., Jeste, D.V., 2005. Epidemiology of and risk factors for psychosis of Alzheimer's disease: a review of 55 studies published from 1990 to 2003. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 2022-2030.
103. Rossner, S., Schliebs, R., Bigl, V., 1995. 192IgG-saporin-induced immunotoxic lesions of cholinergic basal forebrain system differentially affect glutamatergic and GABAergic markers in cortical rat brain regions. Brain Research 696, 165-176.
104. Rubin, E.H., Drevets, W.C., Burke, W.J., 1988. The nature of psychotic symptoms in senile dementia of the Alzheimer type. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology 1, 16-20.
105. Rushworth, M.F., Behrens, T.E., 2008. Choice, uncertainty and value in prefrontal and cingulate cortex. Nature Neuroscience 11, 389-397.
106. Savva, G.M., Zaccai, J., Matthews, F.E., Davidson, J.E., McKeith, I., Brayne, C., 2009. Prevalence, correlates and course of behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia in the population. British Journal of Psychiatry 194, 212-219.
107. Scarmeas, N., Brandt, J., Albert, M., Hadjigeorgiou, G., Papadimitriou, A., Dubois, B., Sarazin, M., Devanand, D., Honig, L., Marder, K., Bell, K., Wegesin, D., Blacker, D., Stern, Y., 2005. Delusions and hallucinations are associated with worse outcome in Alzheimer disease. Archives of Neurology 62, 1601-1608.
108. Schneider, L.S., Dagerman, K., Insel, P.S., 2006a. Efficacy and adverse effects of atypical antipsychotics for dementia: meta-analysis of randomized, placebocontrolled trials. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 14, 191-210.
109. Schneider, L.S., Tariot, P.N., Dagerman, K.S., Davis, S.M., Hsiao, J.K., Ismail, M.S., Lebowitz, B.D., Lyketsos, C.G., Ryan, J.M., Stroup, T.S., Sultzer, D.L., Weintraub, D., Lieberman, J.A., 2006b. Effectiveness of atypical antipsychotic drugs in patients with Alzheimer's disease. New England Journal of Medicine 355, 1525-1538.
110. Seeman, P., Weinshenker, D., Quirion, R., Srivastava, L.K., Bhardwaj, S.K., Grandy, D.K., Premont, R.T., Sotnikova, T.D., Boksa, P., El-Ghundi, M., O'Dowd, B.F., George, S.R., Perreault, M.L., Mannisto, P.T., Robinson, S., Palmiter, R.D., Tallerico, T., 2005. Dopamine supersensitivity correlates with D2High states, implying many paths to psychosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102, 3513-3518.
111. Selemon, L.D., Goldman-Rakic, P.S., 1985. Longitudinal topography and interdigitation of corticostriatal projections in the rhesus monkey. Journal of Neuroscience 5, 776-794.
112. Serra, L., Perri, R., Cercignani, M., Spano, B., Fadda, L., Marra, C., Carlesimo, G.A., Caltagirone, C., Bozzali, M., 2010. Are the behavioral symptoms of Alzheimer's disease directly associated with neurodegeneration. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 21, 627-639.
113. Shepherd, A.M., Laurens, K.R., Matheson, S.L., Carr, V.J., Green, M.J., 2012. Systematic meta-review and quality assessment of the structural brain alterations in schizophrenia. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 36, 1342-1356.
114. Shinno, H., Inagaki, T., Miyaoka, T., Okazaki, S., Kawamukai, T., Utani, E., Inami, Y., Horiguchi, J., 2007. A decrease in N-acetylaspartate and an increase in myoinositol in the anterior cingulate gyrus are associated with behavioral and psychological symptoms in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 260, 132-138.
115. Staff, R.T., Shanks, M.F., Macintosh, L., Pestell, S.J., Gemmell, H.G., Venneri, A., 1999. Delusions in Alzheimer's disease: spet evidence of right hemispheric dysfunction. Cortex 35, 549-560.
116. Staff, R.T., Venneri, A., Gemmell, H.G., Shanks, M.F., Pestell, S.J., Murray, A.D., 2000. HMPAO SPECT imaging of Alzheimer's disease patients with similar content-specific autobiographic delusion: comparison using statistical parametric mapping. Journal of Nuclear Medicine 41, 1451-1455.
117. Starkstein, S.E., Vazquez, S., Petracca, G., Sabe, L., Migliorelli, R., Teson, A., Leiguarda, R., 1994. A SPECT study of delusions in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 44, 2055-2059.
118. Steinberg, M., Shao, H., Zandi, P., Lyketsos, C.G., Welsh-Bohmer, K.A., Norton, M.C., Breitner, J.C., Steffens, D.C., Tschanz, J.T., 2008. Point and 5-year period prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms in dementia: the Cache County Study. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 23, 170-177.
119. Sultzer, D.L., Brown, C.V., Mandelkern, M.A., Mahler, M.E., Mendez, M.F., Chen, S.T., Cummings, J.L., 2003. Delusional thoughts and regional frontal/temporal cortex metabolism in Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 341-349.
120. Sultzer, D.L., Mahler, M.E., Mandelkern, M.A., Cummings, J.L., Van Gorp, W.G., Hinkin, C.H., Berisford, M.A., 1995. The relationship between psychiatric symptoms and regional cortical metabolism in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 7, 476-484.
121. Swanberg, M.M., Tractenberg, R.E., Mohs, R., Thal, L.J., Cummings, J.L., 2004. Executive dysfunction in Alzheimer disease. Archives of Neurology 61, 556-560.
122. Sweet, R.A., Bennett, D.A., Graff-Radford, N.R., Mayeux, R., 2010. Assessment and familial aggregation of psychosis in Alzheimer's disease from the National Institute on Aging Late Onset Alzheimer's Disease Family Study. Brain 133, 1155-1162.
123. Sweet, R.A., Devlin, B., Pollock, B.G., Sukonick, D.L., Kastango, K.B., Bacanu, S.A., Chowdari, K.V., DeKosky, S.T., Ferrell, R.E., 2005. Catechol-O-methyltransferase haplotypes are associated with psychosis in Alzheimer disease. Molecular Psychiatry 10, 1026-1036.
124. Sweet, R.A., Hamilton, R.L., Healy, M.T., Wisniewski, S.R., Henteleff, R., Pollock, B.G., Lewis, D.A., DeKosky, S.T., 2001. Alterations of striatal dopamine receptor binding in Alzheimer disease are associated with Lewy body pathology and antemortem psychosis. Archives of Neurology 58, 466-472.
125. Sweet, R.A., Hamilton, R.L., Lopez, O.L., Klunk, W.E., Wisniewski, S.R., Kaufer, D.I., Healy, M.T., DeKosky, S.T., 2000. Psychotic symptoms in Alzheimer's disease are not associated with more severe neuropathologic features. International Psychogeriatrics 12, 547-558.
126. Sweet, R.A., Nimgaonkar, V.L., Devlin, B., Jeste, D.V., 2003. Psychotic symptoms in Alzheimer disease: evidence for a distinct phenotype. Molecular Psychiatry 8, 383-392.
127. Takahashi, Y.K., Roesch, M.R., Stalnaker, T.A., Haney, R.Z., Calu, D.J., Taylor, A.R., Burke, K.A., Schoenbaum, G., 2009. The orbitofrontal cortex and ventral tegmental area are necessary for learning from unexpected outcomes. Neuron 62, 269-280.
128. Tariot, P.N., Mack, J.L., Patterson, M.B., Edland, S.D., Weiner, M.F., Fillenbaum, G., Blazina, L., Teri, L., Rubin, E., Mortimer, J.A., et al., 1995. The behavior rating scale for dementia of the consortium to establish a registry for Alzheimer's disease. The behavioral pathology committee of the consortium to establish a registry for Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Psychiatry 152, 1349-1357.
129. Tsai, C.F., Wang, S.J., Zheng, L., Fuh, J.L., 2010. Category verbal fluency predicted changes in behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 64, 408-414.
130. Tsang, S.W., Francis, P.T., Esiri, M.M., Wong, P.T., Chen, C.P., Lai, M.K., 2008. Loss of [3H]4-DAMP binding to muscarinic receptors in the orbitofrontal cortex of Alzheimer's disease patients with psychosis. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 198, 251-259.
131. Tzavara, E.T., Bymaster, F.P., Davis, R.J., Wade, M.R., Perry, K.W., Wess, J., McKinzie, D.L., Felder, C., Nomikos, G.G., 2004. M4 muscarinic receptors regulate the dynamics of cholinergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission: relevance to the pathophysiology and treatment of related CNS pathologies. FASEB Journal 18, 1410-1412.
132. Venneri, A., Shanks, M.F., Staff, R.T., Della Sala, S., 2000. Nurturing syndrome: a form of pathological bereavement with delusions in Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychologia 38, 213-224.
133. Weamer, E.A., Emanuel, J.E., Varon, D., Miyahara, S., Wilkosz, P.A., Lopez, O.L., Dekosky, S.T., Sweet, R.A., 2009. The relationship of excess cognitive impairment in MCI and early Alzheimer's disease to the subsequent emergence of psychosis. International Psychogeriatrics 21, 78-85.
134. White, K.E., Cummings, J.L., 1996. Schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease: clinical and pathophysiologic analogies. Comprehensive Psychiatry 37, 188-195.
135. Whitehead, D., Tunnard, C., Hurt, C., Wahlund, L.O., Mecocci, P., Tsolaki, M., Vellas, B., Spenger, C., Kloszewska, I., Soininen, H., Cromb, D., Lovestone, S., Simmons, A., 2012. Frontotemporal atrophy associated with paranoid delusions in women with Alzheimer's disease. International Psychogeriatrics 24 (1), 99-107.
136. Wilkosz, P.A., Miyahara, S., Lopez, O.L., Dekosky, S.T., Sweet, R.A., 2006. Prediction of psychosis onset in Alzheimer disease: the role of cognitive impairment, depressive symptoms, and further evidence for psychosis subtypes. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 14, 352-360.
137. Wilkosz, P.A., Seltman, H.J., Devlin, B., Weamer, E.A., Lopez, O.L., DeKosky, S.T., Sweet, R.A., 2010. Trajectories of cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease. International Psychogeriatrics 22, 281-290.
138. Wilson, R.S., Gilley, D.W., Bennett, D.A., Beckett, L.A., Evans, D.A., 2000. Hallucinations, delusions, and cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 69, 172-177.
139. Wilson, R.S., Tang, Y., Aggarwal, N.T., Gilley, D.W., McCann, J.J., Bienias, J.L., Evans, D.A., 2006. Hallucinations, cognitive decline, and death in Alzheimer's disease. Neuroepidemiology 26, 68-75.
140. Zakzanis, K.K., Hansen, K.T., 1998. Dopamine D2 densities and the schizophrenic brain. Schizophrenia Research 32, 201-206.
141. Zubenko, G.S., Moossy, J., Martinez, A.J., Rao, G., Claassen, D., Rosen, J., Kopp, U., 1991. Neuropathologic and neurochemical correlates of psychosis in primary dementia. Archives of Neurology 48, 619-624.