The hidden but positive role for glucocorticoids in the regulation of growth hormone-producing cells

Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology

Volumn 363, Issue 1-2, 2012, Pages 1-9

  Vakili, Hana ^a   Cattini, Peter A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA   (Canada)

Author keywords

ETS transcription factor; Glucocorticoids; Growth hormone; Growth retardation; Ras; Somatotrophs

Indexed keywords

CORTICOTROPIN; CORTICOTROPIN RECEPTOR; DEXAMETHASONE; DEXRAS; GLUCOCORTICOID; GROWTH HORMONE; HYDROCORTISONE; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE 1; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE 3; PROLACTIN; SOMATOMEDIN; SOMATOMEDIN 1; STEROID HORMONE; T BOX TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR; THYROTROPIN; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR ELK 1; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR ETS 1; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ADDISON DISEASE; ADENOHYPOPHYSIS; ADRENAL GLAND; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL DIVISION; CORTICOSTEROID BLOOD LEVEL; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT; GENE; GENE ACTIVATION; GENE CONTROL; GENE EXPRESSION; GLUCOCORTICOSTEROID DEFICIENCY; GR GENE; GROWTH HORMONE BLOOD LEVEL; GROWTH HORMONE DEFICIENCY; GROWTH HORMONE SECRETING CELL; HORMONAL REGULATION; HORMONE ACTION; HORMONE DEFICIENCY; HORMONE RELEASE; HORMONE RESPONSE; HORMONE SYNTHESIS; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS SYSTEM; KNOCKOUT GENE; MOLECULAR MECHANICS; NONHUMAN; PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROMOTER REGION; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; STEM CELL; STEROID THERAPY;

ANIMALS; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; HUMAN DEVELOPMENT; HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE; HUMANS; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; PITUITARY GLAND; PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM; SOMATOTROPHS;

EID: 84866938321     PISSN: 03037207     EISSN: 18728057     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2012.08.001     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Allen D.B. Growth suppression by glucocorticoid therapy. Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. North Am. 1996, 25:699-717.
2. Beamer W.H., Eicher E.M. Stimulation of growth in the little mouse. J. Endocrinol. 1976, 71:37-45.
3. Bodner M., Castrillo J.L., Theill L.E., Deerinck T., Ellisman M., Karin M. The pituitary-specific transcription factor GHF-1 is a homeobox-containing protein. Cell 1988, 55:505-518.
4. Bonnefont X., Lacampagne A., Sanchez-Hormigo A., Fino E., Creff A., Mathieu M.N., Smallwood S., Carmignac D., Fontanaud P., Travo P., Alonso G., Courtois-Coutry N., Pincus S.M., Robinson I.C., Mollard P. Revealing the large-scale network organization of growth hormone-secreting cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005, 102:16880-16885.
5. Bossis I., Porter T.E. Evaluation of glucocorticoid-induced growth hormone gene expression in chicken embryonic pituitary cells using a novel in situ mRNA quantitation method. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 2003, 201:13-23.
6. Bossis I., Nishimura S., Muchow M., Porter T.E. Pituitary expression of type I and type II glucocorticoid receptors during chicken embryonic development and their involvement in growth hormone cell differentiation. Endocrinology 2004, 145:3523-3531.
7. Bradford A.P., Wasylyk C., Wasylyk B., Gutierrez-Hartmann A. Interaction of Ets-1 and the POU-homeodomain protein GHF-1/Pit-1 reconstitutes pituitary-specific gene expression. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1997, 17:1065-1074.
8. Bradford A.P., Brodsky K.S., Diamond S.E., Kuhn L.C., Liu Y., Gutierrez-Hartmann A. The Pit-1 homeodomain and beta-domain interact with Ets-1 and modulate synergistic activation of the rat prolactin promoter. J. Biol. Chem. 2000, 275:3100-3106.
9. Casanueva F.F., Burguera B., Muruais C., Dieguez C. Acute administration of corticoids: a new and peculiar stimulus of growth hormone secretion in man. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1990, 70:234-237.
10. Cattini P.A., Eberhardt N.L. Regulated expression of chimaeric genes containing the 5'-flanking regions of human growth hormone-related genes in transiently transfected rat anterior pituitary tumor cells. Nucleic Acids Res. 1987, 15:1297-1309.
11. Chen J., Gremeaux L., Fu Q., Liekens D., Van Laere S., Vankelecom H. Pituitary progenitor cells tracked down by side population dissection. Stem Cells 2009, 27:1182-1195.
12. Chrousos G.P., Kino T. Intracellular glucocorticoid signaling: a formerly simple system turns stochastic. Sci. STKE 2005, 2005:pe48.
13. Cismowski M.J., Takesono A., Ma C., Lizano J.S., Xie X., Fuernkranz H., Lanier S.M., Duzic E. Genetic screens in yeast to identify mammalian nonreceptor modulators of G-protein signaling. Nat. Biotechnol. 1999, 17:878-883.
14. Cole T.J., Blendy J.A., Monaghan A.P., Krieglstein K., Schmid W., Aguzzi A., Fantuzzi G., Hummler E., Unsicker K., Schutz G. Targeted disruption of the glucocorticoid receptor gene blocks adrenergic chromaffin cell development and severely retards lung maturation. Genes Dev. 1995, 9:1608-1621.
15. Dattani M.T. Growth hormone deficiency and combined pituitary hormone deficiency: does the genotype matter?. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf) 2005, 63:121-130.
16. De Marinis L., Bianchi A., Mancini A., Gentilella R., Perrelli M., Giampietro A., Porcelli T., Tilaro L., Fusco A., Valle D., Tacchino R.M. Growth hormone secretion and leptin in morbid obesity before and after biliopancreatic diversion: relationships with insulin and body composition. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2004, 89:174-180.
17. Deal C. Is congenital growth hormone deficiency ever transient?. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Rev. 2005, 2(Suppl 3):355-362.
18. Elefant F., Su Y., Liebhaber S.A., Cooke N.E. Patterns of histone acetylation suggest dual pathways for gene activation by a bifunctional locus control region. EMBO J. 2000, 19:6814-6822.
19. Elefant F., Cooke N.E., Liebhaber S.A. Targeted recruitment of histone acetyltransferase activity to a locus control region. J. Biol. Chem. 2000, 275:13827-13834.
20. Ellestad L.E., Carre W., Muchow M., Jenkins S.A., Wang X., Cogburn L.A., Porter T.E. Gene expression profiling during cellular differentiation in the embryonic pituitary gland using cDNA microarrays. Physiol. Genomics 2006, 25:414-425.
21. Encio I.J., Detera-Wadleigh S.D. The genomic structure of the human glucocorticoid receptor. J. Biol. Chem. 1991, 266:7182-7188.
22. Epelbaum J., Moyse E., Tannenbaum G.S., Kordon C., Beaudet A. Combined autoradiographic and immunohistochemical evidence for an association of somatostatin binding sites with growth hormone-releasing factor-containing nerve cell bodies in the rat arcuate nucleus. J. Neuroendocrinol. 1989, 1:109-115.
23. Erdmann G., Schutz G., Berger S. Loss of glucocorticoid receptor function in the pituitary results in early postnatal lethality. Endocrinology 2008, 149:3446-3451.
24. Flurkey K., Papaconstantinou J., Miller R.A., Harrison D.E. Lifespan extension and delayed immune and collagen aging in mutant mice with defects in growth hormone production. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2001, 98:6736-6741.
25. Franzese A., Valerio G., Di Maio S., Iannucci M.P., Bloise A., Tenore A. Growth hormone insufficiency in a girl with the autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 1999, 22:66-69.
26. Fu X., Porter T.E. Glucocorticoid induction of lactotrophs and prolactin gene expression in chicken embryonic pituitary cells: a delayed response relative to stimulated growth hormone production. Endocrinology 2004, 145:1322-1330.
27. Fu Q., Gremeaux L., Luque R.M., Liekens D., Chen J., Buch T., Waisman A., Kineman R., Vankelecom H. The adult pituitary shows stem/progenitor cell activation in response to injury and is capable of regeneration. Endocrinology 2012, 153:3224-3235.
28. Gille H., Strahl T., Shaw P.E. Activation of ternary complex factor Elk-1 by stress-activated protein kinases. Curr. Biol. 1995, 5:1191-1200.
29. Gille H., Kortenjann M., Thomae O., Moomaw C., Slaughter C., Cobb M.H., Shaw P.E. ERK phosphorylation potentiates Elk-1-mediated ternary complex formation and transactivation. EMBO J. 1995, 14:951-962.
30. Giustina A., Veldhuis J.D. Pathophysiology of the neuroregulation of growth hormone secretion in experimental animals and the human. Endocr. Rev. 1998, 19:717-797.
31. Giustina A., Romanelli G., Candrina R., Giustina G. Growth hormone deficiency in patients with idiopathic adrenocorticotropin deficiency resolves during glucocorticoid replacement. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1989, 68:120-124.
32. Giustina A., Romanelli G., Bossoni S., Girelli A., Pizzocolo G., Valentini U., Zuccato F. Effects of short-term glucocorticoid deprivation on growth hormone (GH) response to GH-releasing hormone in man. Horm. Metab. Res. 1989, 21:693-694.
33. Giustina A., Mazziotti G., Canalis E. Growth hormone, insulin-like growth factors, and the skeleton. Endocr. Rev. 2008, 29:535-559.
34. Graham T.E., Key T.A., Kilpatrick K., Dorin R.I. Dexras1/AGS-1, a steroid hormone-induced guanosine triphosphate-binding protein, inhibits 3',5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate-stimulated secretion in AtT-20 corticotroph cells. Endocrinology 2001, 142:2631-2640.
35. Graham T.E., Prossnitz E.R., Dorin R.I. Dexras1/AGS-1 inhibits signal transduction from the Gi-coupled formyl peptide receptor to Erk-1/2 MAP kinases. J. Biol. Chem. 2002, 277:10876-10882.
36. Grant D.B., Atherden S.M. Cushing's disease presenting with growth failure: clinical remission during cyproheptadine therapy. Arch. Dis. Child. 1979, 54:466-468.
37. Greenwood F.C., Landon J. Growth hormone secretion in response to stress in man. Nature 1966, 210:540-541.
38. Gremeaux L., Fu Q., Chen J., Vankelecom H. Activated phenotype of the pituitary stem/progenitor cell compartment during the early-postnatal maturation phase of the gland. Stem Cells Dev. 2012, 21:801-813.
39. Gutierrez-Hartmann A., Duval D.L., Bradford A.P. ETS transcription factors in endocrine systems. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 2007, 18:150-158.
40. Heuck-Knubel K., Proszkowiec-Weglarz M., Narayana J., Ellestad L.E., Prakobsaeng N., Porter T.E. Identification of cis elements necessary for glucocorticoid induction of growth hormone gene expression in chicken embryonic pituitary cells. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2012, 302:R606-R619.
41. Hochberg Z. Mechanisms of steroid impairment of growth. Horm. Res. 2002, 58(Suppl 1):33-38.
42. Hochberg Z., Hardoff D., Atias D., Spindel A. Isolated ACTH deficiency with transitory GH deficiency. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 1985, 8:67-70.
43. Hollenberg S.M., Weinberger C., Ong E.S., Cerelli G., Oro A., Lebo R., Thompson E.B., Rosenfeld M.G., Evans R.M. Primary structure and expression of a functional human glucocorticoid receptor cDNA. Nature 1985, 318:635-641.
44. Horvath S., Palkovits M., Gorcs T., Arimura A. Electron microscopic immunocytochemical evidence for the existence of bidirectional synaptic connections between growth hormone-releasing hormone- and somatostatin-containing neurons in the hypothalamus of the rat. Brain Res. 1989, 481:8-15.
45. Ingraham H.A., Chen R.P., Mangalam H.J., Elsholtz H.P., Flynn S.E., Lin C.R., Simmons D.M., Swanson L., Rosenfeld M.G. A tissue-specific transcription factor containing a homeodomain specifies a pituitary phenotype. Cell 1988, 55:519-529.
46. Ip S.C., Lau J.S., Au W.L., Leung F.C. Characterization of the 5'-flanking transcriptional regulatory region of chicken growth hormone gene. Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood) 2004, 229:640-649.
47. Jain V., Metherell L.A., David A., Sharma R., Sharma P.K., Clark A.J., Chan L.F. Neonatal presentation of familial glucocorticoid deficiency resulting from a novel splice mutation in the melanocortin 2 receptor accessory protein. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 2011, 165:987-991.
48. Jenkins S.A., Porter T.E. Ontogeny of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in the chicken embryo: a review. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 2004, 26:267-275.
49. Jin Y., Norquay L.D., Yang X., Gregoire S., Cattini P.A. Binding of AP-2 and ETS-domain family members is associated with enhancer activity in the hypersensitive site III region of the human growth hormone/chorionic somatomammotropin locus. Mol. Endocrinol. 2004, 18:574-587.
50. Kanaley J.A., Weltman J.Y., Pieper K.S., Weltman A., Hartman M.L. Cortisol and growth hormone responses to exercise at different times of day. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2001, 86:2881-2889.
51. Keegan C.E., Herman J.P., Karolyi I.J., O'Shea K.S., Camper S.A., Seasholtz A.F. Differential expression of corticotropin-releasing hormone in developing mouse embryos and adult brain. Endocrinology 1994, 134:2547-2555.
52. Kelberman D., Rizzoti K., Lovell-Badge R., Robinson I.C., Dattani M.T. Genetic regulation of pituitary gland development in human and mouse. Endocr. Rev. 2009, 30:790-829.
53. Kindermann W., Schnabel A., Schmitt W.M., Biro G., Cassens J., Weber F. Catecholamines, growth hormone, cortisol, insulin, and sex hormones in anaerobic and aerobic exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 1982, 49:389-399.
54. Kino T., Chrousos G.P. Glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors and associated diseases. Essays Biochem. 2004, 40:137-155.
55. Krogh J., Nordentoft M., Mohammad-Nezhad M., Westrin A. Growth hormone, prolactin and cortisol response to exercise in patients with depression. J. Affect. Disord. 2010, 125:189-197.
56. Lefevre C., Imagawa M., Dana S., Grindlay J., Bodner M., Karin M. Tissue-specific expression of the human growth hormone gene is conferred in part by the binding of a specific trans-acting factor. EMBO J. 1987, 6:971-981.
57. Li S., Crenshaw E.B., Rawson E.J., Simmons D.M., Swanson L.W., Rosenfeld M.G. Dwarf locus mutants lacking three pituitary cell types result from mutations in the POU-domain gene pit-1. Nature 1990, 347:528-533.
58. Lima L., Arce V., Diaz M.J., Tresguerres J.A., Devesa J. Glucocorticoids may inhibit growth hormone release by enhancing beta-adrenergic responsiveness in hypothalamic somatostatin neurons. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1993, 76:439-444.
59. Liu J., Lin C., Gleiberman A., Ohgi K.A., Herman T., Huang H.P., Tsai M.J., Rosenfeld M.G. Tbx19, a tissue-selective regulator of POMC gene expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2001, 98:8674-8679.
60. Maccario M., Procopio M., Grottoli S., Oleandri S.E., Razzore P., Camanni F., Ghigo E. In obesity the somatotrope response to either growth hormone-releasing hormone or arginine is inhibited by somatostatin or pirenzepine but not by glucose. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1995, 80:3774-3778.
61. Manojlovic-Stojanoski M., Nestorovic N., Negic N., Filipovic B., Sosic-Jurjevic B., Sekulic M., Milosevic V. Influence of maternal dexamethasone treatment on morphometric characteristics of pituitary GH cells and body weight in near-term rat fetuses. Folia Histochem. Cytobiol. 2007, 45:51-56.
62. Martul P., Pineda J., Dieguez C., Casanueva F.F. Corticoid-induced growth hormone (GH) secretion in GH-deficient and normal children. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1992, 75:536-539.
63. McEachern R., Drouin J., Metherell L., Huot C., Van Vliet G., Deal C. Severe cortisol deficiency associated with reversible growth hormone deficiency in two infants: what is the link?. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2011, 96:2670-2674.
64. McKenna N.J., Lanz R.B., O'Malley B.W. Nuclear receptor coregulators: cellular and molecular biology. Endocr. Rev. 1999, 20:321-344.
65. McMahon S.K., Pretorius C.J., Ungerer J.P., Salmon N.J., Conwell L.S., Pearen M.A., Batch J.A. Neonatal complete generalized glucocorticoid resistance and growth hormone deficiency caused by a novel homozygous mutation in Helix 12 of the ligand binding domain of the glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1). J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2010, 95:297-302.
66. Moore D.D., Marks A.R., Buckley D.I., Kapler G., Payvar F., Goodman H.M. The first intron of the human growth hormone gene contains a binding site for glucocorticoid receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1985, 82:699-702.
67. Morpurgo B., Dean C.E., Porter T.E. Identification of the blood-borne somatotroph-differentiating factor during chicken embryonic development. Endocrinology 1997, 138:4530-4535.
68. Muruais C., Cordido F., Morales M.J., Casanueva F.F., Dieguez C. Corticosteroid-induced growth hormone secretion in normal and obese subjects. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf) 1991, 35:485-490.
69. Nogami H., Inoue K., Kawamura K. Involvement of glucocorticoid-induced factor(s) in the stimulation of growth hormone expression in the fetal rat pituitary gland in vitro. Endocrinology 1997, 138:1810-1815.
70. Oikawa T., Yamada T. Molecular biology of the Ets family of transcription factors. Gene 2003, 303:11-34.
71. Otto C., Reichardt H.M., Schutz G. Absence of glucocorticoid receptor-beta in mice. J. Biol. Chem. 1997, 272:26665-26668.
72. Ozawa H., Ito T., Ochiai I., Kawata M. Cellular localization and distribution of glucocorticoid receptor immunoreactivity and the expression of glucocorticoid receptor messenger RNA in rat pituitary gland. A combined double immunohistochemistry study and in situ hybridization histochemical analysis. Cell Tissue Res. 1999, 295:207-214.
73. Papathanasiou A., Kousta E., Skarpa V., Papachileos P., Petrou V., Hadjiathanasiou C. Growth hormone deficiency in a patient with autoimmune polyendocrinopathy type 2. Hormones (Athens) 2007, 6:247-250.
74. Pataky Z., Bobbioni-Harsch E., Golay A. Obesity: a complex growing challenge. Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes 2010, 118:427-433.
75. Payne A.H., Hales D.B. Overview of steroidogenic enzymes in the pathway from cholesterol to active steroid hormones. Endocr. Rev. 2004, 25:947-970.
76. Pekic S., Doknic M., Djurovic M., Damjanovic S., Petakov M., Miljic D., Dieguez C., Casanueva F.F., Popovic V. The influence of serum cortisol levels on growth hormone responsiveness to GH-releasing hormone plus GH-releasing peptide-6 in patients with hypocortisolism. Hormones (Athens) 2003, 2:243-249.
77. Petersenn S., Maaser C., Schulte H.M. Transcriptional activation of the human growth hormone gene by ras oncogene. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 1997, 129:47-54.
78. Pijl H., Langendonk J.G., Burggraaf J., Frolich M., Cohen A.F., Veldhuis J.D., Meinders A.E. Altered neuroregulation of GH secretion in viscerally obese premenopausal women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2001, 86:5509-5515.
79. Porter T.E. Regulation of pituitary somatotroph differentiation by hormones of peripheral endocrine glands. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 2005, 29:52-62.
80. Pralong F.P., Miell J.P., Corder R., Gaillard R.C. Dexamethasone treatment in man induces changes in 24hour growth hormone (GH) secretion profile without altering total GH released. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1991, 73:1191-1196.
81. Procopio M., Maccario M., Grottoli S., Oleandri S.E., Boffano G.M., Camanni F., Ghigo E. Short-term fasting in obesity fails to restore the blunted GH responsiveness to GH-releasing hormone alone or combined with arginine. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf) 1995, 43:665-669.
82. Pun T., Chandurkar V. Growth hormone deficiency, short stature, and juvenile rheumatoid arthritis in a patient with autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 1: case report and brief review of the literature. ISRN Endocrinol. 2011, 2011:462759.
83. Raza J., Massoud A.F., Hindmarsh P.C., Robinson I.C., Brook C.G. Direct effects of corticotrophin-releasing hormone on stimulated growth hormone secretion. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf) 1998, 48:217-222.
84. Reichardt H.M., Schutz G. Feedback control of glucocorticoid production is established during fetal development. Mol. Med. 1996, 2:735-744.
85. Rosenbloom A.L., Frias J.L. Growth hormone deficiency with hypoglycemia, genital hypoplasia and frontal prominence. Birth Defects Orig. Artic. Ser. 1974, 10:239-242.
86. Savage M.O., Storr H.L., Grossman A.B., Krassas G.E. Growth and growth hormone secretion in paediatric Cushing's disease. Hormones (Athens) 2003, 2:93-97.
87. Savage M.O., Simon D., Czernichow P.C. Growth hormone treatment in children on chronic glucorticoid therapy. Endocr. Dev. 2011, 20:194-201.
88. Scacchi M., Orsini F., Cattaneo A., Grasso A., Filippini B., Pecori Giraldi F., Fatti L.M., Moro M., Cavagnini F. The diagnosis of GH deficiency in obese patients: a reappraisal with GHRH plus arginine testing after pharmacological blockade of lipolysis. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 2010, 163:201-206.
89. Schmidt M.V., Sterlemann V., Wagner K., Niederleitner B., Ganea K., Liebl C., Deussing J.M., Berger S., Schutz G., Holsboer F., Muller M.B. Postnatal glucocorticoid excess due to pituitary glucocorticoid receptor deficiency: differential short- and long-term consequences. Endocrinology 2009, 150:2709-2716.
90. Schoneveld O.J., Gaemers I.C., Lamers W.H. Mechanisms of glucocorticoid signalling. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2004, 1680:114-128.
91. Schulte D.M., Shapiro I., Reincke M., Beuschlein F. Expression and spatio-temporal distribution of differentiation and proliferation markers during mouse adrenal development. Gene Expression Patterns 2007, 7:72-81.
92. Seckl J.R. Prenatal glucocorticoids and long-term programming. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 2004, 151(Suppl 3):U49-U62.
93. Selden R.F., Yun J.S., Moore D.D., Rowe M.E., Malia M.A., Wagner T.E., Goodman H.M. Glucocorticoid regulation of human growth hormone expression in transgenic mice and transiently transfected cells. J. Endocrinol. 1989, 122:49-60.
94. Sheng H.Z., Zhadanov A.B., Mosinger B., Fujii T., Bertuzzi S., Grinberg A., Lee E.J., Huang S.P., Mahon K.A., Westphal H. Specification of pituitary cell lineages by the LIM homeobox gene Lhx3. Science 1996, 272:1004-1007.
95. Simmons D.M., Voss J.W., Ingraham H.A., Holloway J.M., Broide R.S., Rosenfeld M.G., Swanson L.W. Pituitary cell phenotypes involve cell-specific Pit-1 mRNA translation and synergistic interactions with other classes of transcription factors. Genes Dev. 1990, 4:695-711.
96. Slater E.P., Rabenau O., Karin M., Baxter J.D., Beato M. Glucocorticoid receptor binding and activation of a heterologous promoter by dexamethasone by the first intron of the human growth hormone gene. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1985, 5:2984-2992.
97. Solomon I.L., Schoen E.J. Juvenile Cushing syndrome manifested primarily by growth failure. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1976, 130:200-202.
98. Speirs H.J., Seckl J.R., Brown R.W. Ontogeny of glucocorticoid receptor and 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type-1 gene expression identifies potential critical periods of glucocorticoid susceptibility during development. J. Endocrinol. 2004, 181:105-116.
99. Tannenbaum G.S. Interrelationship of somatostatin and growth hormone-releasing hormone in the genesis of the rhythmic secretion of growth hormone. Acta Paediatr. Scand. Suppl. 1990, 367:76-80.
100. Tannenbaum G.S., Painson J.C., Lapointe M., Gurd W., McCarthy G.F. Interplay of somatostatin and growth hormone-releasing hormone in genesis of episodic growth hormone secretion. Metabolism 1990, 39:35-39.
101. Tonshoff B., Mehls O. Factors affecting growth and strategies for treatment in children after renal transplantation. Pediatr. Transplant. 1997, 1:176-182.
102. Tonshoff B., Cronin M.J., Reichert M., Haffner D., Wingen A.M., Blum W.F., Mehls O. Reduced concentration of serum growth hormone (GH)-binding protein in children with chronic renal failure: correlation with GH insensitivity. The European Study Group for Nutritional Treatment of Chronic Renal Failure in Childhood. The German Study Group for Growth Hormone Treatment in Chronic Renal Failure. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1997, 82:1007-1013.
103. Treacy M.N., Ryan F., Martin F. Functional glucocorticoid inducible enhancer activity in the 5'-flanking sequences of the rat growth hormone gene. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 1991, 38:1-15.
104. Tronche F., Kellendonk C., Reichardt H.M., Schutz G. Genetic dissection of glucocorticoid receptor function in mice. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 1998, 8:532-538.
105. Tronche F., Kellendonk C., Kretz O., Gass P., Anlag K., Orban P.C., Bock R., Klein R., Schutz G. Disruption of the glucocorticoid receptor gene in the nervous system results in reduced anxiety. Nat. Genet. 1999, 23:99-103.
106. Vakili H., Jin Y., Nagy J.I., Cattini P.A. Transgenic mice expressing the human growth hormone gene provide a model system to study human growth hormone synthesis and secretion in non-tumor-derived pituitary cells: differential effects of dexamethasone and thyroid hormone. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 2011, 345:48-57.
107. van Aken M.O., Pereira A.M., Frolich M., Romijn J.A., Pijl H., Veldhuis J.D., Roelfsema F. Growth hormone secretion in primary adrenal Cushing's syndrome is disorderly and inversely correlated with body mass index. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metabol. 2005, 288:E63-E70.
108. Vankelecom H. Pituitary stem cells drop their mask. Curr. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2012, 7:36-71.
109. Wilson D.B., Wyatt D.P., Gadler R.M. Differentiation of embryonic mouse GH cells and ACTH cells in vitro. Differentiation 1986, 32:267-273.
110. Yang X., Jin Y., Cattini P.A. Appearance of the pituitary factor Pit-1 increases chromatin remodeling at hypersensitive site III in the human GH locus. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 2010, 45:19-32.
111. Zhu X., Gleiberman A.S., Rosenfeld M.G. Molecular physiology of pituitary development: signaling and transcriptional networks. Physiol. Rev. 2007, 87:933-963.
112. Zung A., Andrews-Murray G., Winqvist O., Chalew S.A. Growth hormone deficiency in autoimmune polyglandular syndrome. J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. 1997, 10:69-72.