Dopamine Dysfunction in Schizophrenia: From Genetic Susceptibility to Cognitive Impairment

Dopamine Handbook

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages

  Tost, Heike ^a   Hakimi, Shabnam ^a   Meyer Lindenberg, Andreas ^b  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF HEIDELBERG   (Germany)

Author keywords

Cognitive dysfunction; Dopamine dysfunction; Dopamine neurotransmission; Schizophrenia

Indexed keywords

EID: 84866854865     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195373035.003.0039     Document Type: Chapter

References (118)

1. Sullivan PF, Neale MC, Kendler KS. Genetic epidemiology of major depression: review and meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry. 2000; 157(10):1552-1562.
2. Meyer-Lindenberg A, Weinberger DR. Intermediate phenotypes and genetic mechanisms of psychiatric disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2006;7(10):818-827.
3. Seeman P. Dopamine receptors and the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Synapse. 1987;1(2):133-152.
4. Hamon J, Paraire J, Velluz J. Remarques sur l'action du 4560 R. P. sur l'agitation maniaque. Ann Med Psychol (Paris). 1952;110(1:3):331-335.
5. Van Rossum JM. The significance of dopamine-receptor blockade for the mechanism of action of neuroleptic drugs. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther. 1966;160:492-494.
6. Ehringer H, Hornykiewicz O. Verteilung von Noradrenalin und Dopamin (3-Hydroxytyramin) im Gehirn des Menschen bei Erkrankungen des extrapyramidalen Systems. Klin Wochenschr. 1960;38:1236-1239.
7. Carlsson A. Evidence for a role of dopamine in extrapyramidal functions. Acta Neuroveg (Wien). 1964;26:484-493.
8. Yaryura-Tobias JA, Wolpert A, Dana L, Merlis S. Action of L-Dopa in drug induced extrapyramidalism. Dis Nerv Syst. 1970;31(1):60-63.
9. Creese I, Burt DR, Snyder SH. Dopamine receptor binding predicts clinical and pharmacological potencies of antischizophrenic drugs. Science. 1976;192(4238):481-483.
10. Seeman P, Chau-Wong M, Tedesco J, Wong K. Brain receptors for antipsychotic drugs and dopamine: direct binding assays. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1975;72(11):4376-4380.
11. Weinberger DR. Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987;44(7):660-669.
12. Meyer-Lindenberg A, Miletich RS, Kohn PD, et al. Reduced prefrontal activity predicts exaggerated striatal dopaminergic function in schizophrenia. Nat Neurosci. 2002;5(3):267-271.
13. Joyce EM, Roiser JP. Cognitive heterogeneity in schizophrenia. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2007;20(3):268-272.
14. Barch DM, Smith E. The cognitive neuroscience of working memory: relevance to CNTRICS and schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;64(1):11-17.
15. Krieger S, Lis S, Janik H, Cetin T, Gallhofer B, Meyer-Lindenberg A. Executive function and cognitive subprocesses in first-episode, drugnaive schizophrenia: an analysis of n-back performance. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(6):1206-1208.
16. Prentice KJ, Gold JM, Buchanan RW. The Wisconsin Card Sorting impairment in schizophrenia is evident in the first four trials. Schizophr Res. 2008;106(1):81-87.
17. Callicott JH, Mattay VS, Bertolino A, et al. Physiological characteristics of capacity constraints in working memory as revealed by functional MRI. Cereb Cortex. 1999;9(1):20-26.
18. Manoach DS. Prefrontal cortex dysfunction during working memory performance in schizophrenia: reconciling discrepant findings. Schizophr Res. 2003;60(2-3):285-298.
19. Cervellione KL, Burdick KE, Cottone JG, Rhinewine JP, Kumra S. Neurocognitive deficits in adolescents with schizophrenia: longitudinal stability and predictive utility for short-term functional outcome. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(7):867-878.
20. Heinrichs RW, Goldberg JO, Miles AA, McDermid Vaz S. Predictors of medication competence in schizophrenia patients. Psychiatry Res. 2008;157(1-3):47-52.
21. Niendam TA, Bearden CE, Rosso IM, et al. A prospective study of childhood neurocognitive functioning in schizophrenic patients and their siblings. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160(11):2060-2062.
22. Callicott JH, Egan MF, Mattay VS, et al. Abnormal fMRI response of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in cognitively intact siblings of patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160(4):709-719.
23. Winterer G, Coppola R, Goldberg TE, et al. Prefrontal broadband noise, working memory, and genetic risk for schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 2004;161(3):490-500.
24. Goldman-Rakic PS. Working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1994;6(4):348-357.
25. Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS. Modulation of memory fields by dopamine D1 receptors in prefrontal cortex. Nature. 1995;376(6541):572-575.
26. Goldman-Rakic PS. Cellular basis of working memory. Neuron. 1995;14(3):477-485.
27. Fuster JM. Prefrontal cortex and the bridging of temporal gaps in the perception-action cycle. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1990;608:318-329; discussion 330-316.
28. Durstewitz D, Seamans JK, Sejnowski TJ. Dopamine-mediated stabilization of delay-period activity in a network model of prefrontal cortex. J Neurophysiol. 2000;83(3):1733-1750.
29. Paulman RG, Devous MD Sr, Gregory RR, et al. Hypofrontality and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia: dynamic single-photon tomography and neuropsychological assessment of schizophrenic brain function. Biol Psychiatry. 1990;27(4):377-399.
30. Andreasen NC, O'Leary DS, Flaum M, et al. Hypofrontality in schizophrenia: distributed dysfunctional circuits in neuroleptic-naive patients. Lancet. 1997;349(9067):1730-1734.
31. Volz H, Gaser C, Hager F, et al. Decreased frontal activation in schizophrenics during stimulation with the continuous performance test-a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Eur Psychiatry. 1999;14(1):17-24.
32. Barch DM, Carter CS, Braver TS, et al. Selective deficits in prefrontal cortex function in medication-naive patients with schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58(3):280-288.
33. Weinberger DR, Berman KF, Zec RF. Physiologic dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. I. Regional cerebral blood flow evidence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986;43(2):114-124.
34. Callicott JH, Bertolino A, Mattay VS, et al. Physiological dysfunction of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia revisited. Cereb Cortex. 2000;10(11):1078-1092.
35. Manoach DS, Press DZ, Thangaraj V, et al. Schizophrenic subjects activate dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during a working memory task, as measured by fMRI. Biol Psychiatry. 1999;45(9):1128-1137.
36. Callicott JH, Mattay VS, Verchinski BA, Marenco S, Egan MF, Weinberger DR. Complexity of prefrontal cortical dysfunction in schizophrenia: more than up or down. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160(12):2209-2215.
37. Meyer-Lindenberg AS, Olsen RK, Kohn PD, et al. Regionally specific disturbance of dorsolateral prefrontal-hippocampal functional connectivity in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(4):379-386.
38. Meyer-Lindenberg A, Poline JB, Kohn PD, et al. Evidence for abnormal cortical functional connectivity during working memory in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158(11):1809-1817.
39. Tan HY, Choo WC, Fones CS, Chee MW. fMRI study of maintenance and manipulation processes within working memory in first-episode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(10):1849-1858.
40. Tan HY, Sust S, Buckholtz JW, et al. Dysfunctional prefrontal regional specialization and compensation in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(11):1969-1977.
41. Durstewitz D, Seamans JK. The dual-state theory of prefrontal cortex dopamine function with relevance to catechol-O-methyltransferase genotypes and schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;64(9):739-749.
42. Seamans JK, Yang CR. The principal features and mechanisms of dopamine modulation in the prefrontal cortex. Prog Neurobiol. 2004;74(1):1-58.
43. Tost H, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Klein S, et al. D2 antidopaminergic modulation of frontal lobe function in healthy human subjects. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;60(11):1196-1205.
44. Harrison PJ. Advances in postmortem molecular neurochemistry and neuropathology: examples from schizophrenia research. Br Med Bull. 1996;52(3):527-538.
45. Farde L, Pauli S, Hall H, et al. Stereoselective binding of 11C-raclopride in living human brain-a search for extrastriatal central D2-dopamine receptors by PET. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1988;94(4):471-478.
46. Lidow MS, Goldman-Rakic PS, Rakic P, Innis RB. Dopamine D2 receptors in the cerebral cortex: distribution and pharmacological characterization with [3H]raclopride. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1989;86(16):6412-6416.
47. Hess EJ, Bracha HS, Kleinman JE, Creese I. Dopamine receptor subtype imbalance in schizophrenia. Life Sci. 1987;40(15):1487-1497.
48. Mjorndal T, Winblad B. Alteration of dopamine receptors in the caudate nucleus and the putamen in schizophrenic brain. Med Biol. 1986;64(6):351-354.
49. Mita T, Hanada S, Nishino N, et al. Decreased serotonin S2 and increased dopamine D2 receptors in chronic schizophrenics. Biol Psychiatry. 1986;21(14):1407-1414.
50. Knable MB, Hyde TM, Herman MM, Carter JM, Bigelow L, Kleinman JE. Quantitative autoradiography of dopamine-D1 receptors, D2 receptors, and dopamine uptake sites in postmortem striatal specimens from schizophrenic patients. Biol Psychiatry. 1994;36(12):827-835.
51. Goldsmith SK, Shapiro RM, Joyce JN. Disrupted pattern of D2 dopamine receptors in the temporal lobe in schizophrenia. A postmortem study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997;54(7):649-658.
52. Gurevich EV, Bordelon Y, Shapiro RM, Arnold SE, Gur RE, Joyce JN. Mesolimbic dopamine D3 receptors and use of antipsychotics in patients with schizophrenia. A postmortem study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997;54(3):225-232.
53. Meador-Woodruff JH, Haroutunian V, Powchik P, Davidson M, Davis KL, Watson SJ. Dopamine receptor transcript expression in striatum and prefrontal and occipital cortex. Focal abnormalities in orbitofrontal cortex in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997;54(12):1089-1095.
54. Wong DF, Wagner HN Jr, Tune LE, et al. Positron emission tomography reveals elevated D2 dopamine receptors in drug-naive schizophrenics. Science. 1986;234(4783):1558-1563.
55. Farde L, Wiesel FA, Hall H, Halldin C, Stone-Elander S, Sedvall G. No D2 receptor increase in PET study of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987;44(7):671-672.
56. Farde L, Wiesel FA, Stone-Elander S, et al. D2 dopamine receptors in neuroleptic-naive schizophrenic patients. A positron emission tomography study with [11C]raclopride. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1990;47(3):213-219.
57. Young LT, Wong DF, Goldman S, et al. Effects of endogenous dopamine on kinetics of [3H]N-methylspiperone and [3H]raclo-pride binding in the rat brain. Synapse. 1991; 9(3):188-194.
58. Chugani DC, Ackermann RF, Phelps ME. In vivo [3H]spiperone binding: evidence for accumulation in corpus striatum by agonist-mediated receptor internalization. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1988;8(3):291-303.
59. Zawarynski P, Tallerico T, Seeman P, Lee SP, O'Dowd BF, George SR. Dopamine D2 receptor dimers in human and rat brain. FEBS Lett. 1998;441(3):383-386.
60. Abi-Dargham A, Rodenhiser J, Printz D, et al. Increased baseline occupancy of D2 receptors by dopamine in schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2000;97(14):8104-8109.
61. Laruelle M, Abi-Dargham A, van Dyck CH, et al. Single photon emission computerized tomography imaging of amphetamine-induced dopamine release in drug-free schizophrenic subjects. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1996;93(17):9235-9240.
62. Hirvonen J, van Erp TG, Huttunen J, et al. Increased caudate dopamine D2 receptor availability as a genetic marker for schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(4):371-378.
63. Knable MB, Hyde TM, Murray AM, Herman MM, Kleinman JE. A postmortem study of frontal cortical dopamine D1 receptors in schizophrenics, psychiatric controls, and normal controls. Biol Psychiatry. 1996;40(12):1191-1199.
64. Domyo T, Kurumaji A, Toru M. An increase in [3H]SCH23390 binding in the cerebral cortex of postmortem brains of chronic schizophrenics. J Neural Transm. 2001;108(12):1475-1484.
65. Abi-Dargham A, Mawlawi O, Lombardo I, et al. Prefrontal dopamine D1 receptors and working memory in schizophrenia. J Neurosci. 2002;22(9):3708-3719.
66. Goldberg TE, Ragland JD, Torrey EF, Gold JM, Bigelow LB, Weinberger DR. Neuropsychological assessment of monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1990;47(11):1066-1072.
67. Owen MJ, Williams NM, O'Donovan MC. The molecular genetics of schizophrenia: new findings promise new insights. Mol Psychiatry. 2004;9(1):14-27.
68. Stefansson H, Rujescu D, Cichon S, et al. Large recurrent microdeletions associated with schizophrenia. Nature. 2008;455(7210):232-236.
69. Murphy KC. Schizophrenia and velo-cardio-facial syndrome. Lancet. 2002;359(9304):426-430.
70. Tunbridge EM, Harrison PJ, Weinberger DR. Catechol-Omethyltransferase, cognition, and psychosis: Val(158)Met and beyond. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;60(2):141-151.
71. Lewis DA, Melchitzky DS, Sesack SR, Whitehead RE, Auh S, Sampson A. Dopamine transporter immunoreactivity in monkey cerebral cortex: regional, laminar, and ultrastructural localization. J Comp Neurol. 2001;432(1):119-136.
72. Chen J, Lipska BK, Halim N, et al. Functional analysis of genetic variation in catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT): effects on mRNA, protein, and enzyme activity in postmortem human brain. Am J Hum Genet. 2004;75(5):807-821.
73. Goldberg TE, Egan MF, Gscheidle T, et al. Executive subprocesses in working memory: relationship to catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met genotype and schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60(9):889-896.
74. Mattay VS, Callicott JH, Bertolino A, et al. Effects of dextroamphetamine on cognitive performance and cortical activation. NeuroImage. 2000;12(3):268-275.
75. Egan MF, Goldberg TE, Kolachana BS, et al. Effect of COMT Val108/158 Met genotype on frontal lobe function and risk for schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98(12):6917-6922.
76. Mattay VS, Goldberg TE, Fera F, et al. Catechol-O-methyltransferase val158-met genotype and individual variation in the brain response to amphetamine. PNAS. 2003;100(10):6186-6191.
77. Fan JB, Zhang CS, Gu NF, et al. Catechol-O-methyltransferase gene Val/Met functional polymorphism and risk of schizophrenia: a large-scale association study plus meta-analysis. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57(2):139-144.
78. Shifman S, Bronstein M, Sternfeld M, et al. A highly significant association between a COMT haplotype and schizophrenia. Am J Hum Genet. 2002;71(6):1296-1302.
79. Meyer-Lindenberg A, Nichols T, Callicott JH, et al. Impact of complex genetic variation in COMT on human brain function. Mol Psychiatry. 2006;11(9):867-877, 797.
80. Nicodemus KK, Kolachana BS, Vakkalanka R, et al. Evidence for statistical epistasis between catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) and polymorphisms in RGS4, G72 (DAOA), GRM3, and DISC1: influence on risk of schizophrenia. Hum Genet. 2007;120(6):889-906.
81. Tan HY, Chen Q, Sust S, et al. Epistasis between catechol-Omethyltransferase and type II metabotropic glutamate receptor 3 genes on working memory brain function. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007;104(30):12536-12541.
82. Straub RE, Lipska BK, Egan MF, et al. Allelic variation in GAD1 (GAD67) is associated with schizophrenia and influences cortical function and gene expression. Mol Psychiatry. 2007;12(9): 854-869.
83. Meyer-Lindenberg A, Kohn PD, Kolachana B, et al. Midbrain dopamine and prefrontal function in humans: interaction and modulation by COMT genotype. Nat Neurosci. 2005;8(5): 594-596.
84. Beaulieu JM, Sotnikova TD, Marion S, Lefkowitz RJ, Gainetdinov RR, Caron MG. An Akt/beta-arrestin 2/PP2A signaling complex mediates dopaminergic neurotransmission and behavior. Cell. 2005;122(2):261-273.
85. Beaulieu JM, Sotnikova TD, Yao WD, et al. Lithium antagonizes dopaminedependent behaviors mediated by an AKT/glycogen synthase kinase 3 signaling cascade. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004;101(14): 5099-5104.
86. Schwab SG, Hoefgen B, Hanses C, et al. Further evidence for association of variants in the AKT1 gene with schizophrenia in a sample of European sibpair families. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;58(6):446-450.
87. Tan HY, Nicodemus KK, Chen Q, et al. Genetic variation in AKT1 is linked to dopamine-associated prefrontal cortical structure and function in humans. J Clin Invest. 2008;118(6):2200-2208.
88. Nicodemus KK, Marenco S, Batten AJ, et al. Serious obstetric complications interact with hypoxia-regulated/vascular-expression genes to influence schizophrenia risk. Mol Psychiatry. 2008;13(9):873-877.
89. Emamian ES, Hall D, Birnbaum MJ, Karayiorgou M, Gogos JA. Convergent evidence for impaired AKT1-GSK3beta signaling in schizophrenia. Nat Genet. 2004;36(2):131-137.
90. Fernandez E, Schiappa R, Girault JA, Le Novere N. DARPP-32 is a robust integrator of dopamine and glutamate signals. PLoS Comput Biol. 2006;2(12):e176.
91. Svenningsson P, Nishi A, Fisone G, Girault JA, Nairn AC, Greengard P. DARPP-32: an integrator of neurotransmission. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2004;44:269-296.
92. Svenningsson P, Tzavara ET, Liu F, Fienberg AA, Nomikos GG, Greengard P. DARPP-32 mediates serotonergic neurotransmission in the forebrain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2002;99(5):3188-3193.
93. Svenningsson P, Tzavara ET, Carruthers R, et al. Diverse psychotomimetics act through a common signaling pathway. Science. 2003;302(5649):1412-1415.
94. Albert KA, Hemmings HC Jr, Adamo AI, et al. Evidence for decreased DARPP-32 in the prefrontal cortex of patients with schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002;59(8):705-712.
95. Ishikawa M, Mizukami K, Iwakiri M, Asada T. Immunohistochemical and immunoblot analysis of dopamine and cyclic AMP-regulated phosphoprotein, relative molecular mass 32,000 (DARPP-32) in the prefrontal cortex of subjects with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2007;31(6):1177-1181.
96. Lewis CM, Levinson DF, Wise LH, et al. Genome scan meta-analysis of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, part II: schizophrenia. Am J Hum Genet. 2003;73(1):34-48.
97. Cardno AG, Holmans PA, Rees MI, et al. A genomewide linkage study of age at onset in schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet. 2001;105(5):439-445.
98. Meyer-Lindenberg A, Straub RE, Lipska BK, et al. Genetic evidence implicating DARPP-32 in human frontostriatal structure, function, and cognition. J Clin Invest. 2007;117(3):672-682.
99. Parra LA, Baust TB, El Mestikawy S, et al. The orphan transporter Rxt1/NTT4 (SLC6A17) functions as a synaptic vesicle amino acid vesicular transporter selective for proline, glycine, leucine, and alanine. Mol Pharmacol. 2008; 74(6):1521-1532.
100. Shafqat S, Velaz-Faircloth M, Henzi VA, et al. Human brain-specific L-proline transporter: molecular cloning, functional expression, and chromosomal localization of the gene in human and mouse genomes. Mol Pharmacol. 1995;48(2):219-229.
101. Raux G, Bumsel E, Hecketsweiler B, et al. Involvement of hyperprolinemia in cognitive and psychiatric features of the 22q11 deletion syndrome. Hum Mol Genet. 2007;16(1):83-91.
102. Jacquet H, Demily C, Houy E, et al. Hyperprolinemia is a risk factor for schizoaffective disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2005;10(5):479-485.
103. Jacquet H, Raux G, Thibaut F, et al. PRODH mutations and hyperprolinemia in a subset of schizophrenic patients. Hum Mol Genet. 2002;11(19):2243-2249.
104. Bender HU, Almashanu S, Steel G, et al. Functional consequences of PRODH missense mutations. Am J Hum Genet. 2005;76(3):409-420.
105. Gogos JA, Santha M, Takacs Z, et al. The gene encoding proline dehydrogenase modulates sensorimotor gating in mice. Nat Genet. 1999;21(4):434-439.
106. Paterlini M, Zakharenko SS, Lai WS, et al. Transcriptional and behavioral interaction between 22q11.2 orthologs modulates schizophrenia-related phenotypes in mice. Nat Neurosci. 2005;8(11):1586-1594.
107. Liu H, Heath SC, Sobin C, et al. Genetic variation at the 22q11 PRODH2/ DGCR6 locus presents an unusual pattern and increases susceptibility to schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2002;99(6):3717-3722.
108. Li T, Ma X, Sham PC, et al. Evidence for association between novel polymorphisms in the PRODH gene and schizophrenia in a Chinese population. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2004;129B(1):13-15.
109. Kempf L, Nicodemus KK, Kolachana B, et al. Functional polymorphisms in PRODH are associated with risk and protection for schizophrenia and fronto-striatal structure and function. PLoS Genet. 2008;4(11):e1000252.
110. Williams HJ, Williams N, Spurlock G, et al. Detailed analysis of PRODH and PsPRODH reveals no association with schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2003;120B(1):42-46.
111. Glaser B, Moskvina V, Kirov G, et al. Analysis of ProDH, COMT and ZDHHC8 risk variants does not support individual or interactive effects on schizophrenia susceptibility. Schizophr Res. 2006;87(1-3):21-27.
112. Diaz-Asper CM, Goldberg TE, Kolachana BS, Straub RE, Egan MF, Weinberger DR. Genetic variation in catechol-O-methyltransferase: effects on working memory in schizophrenic patients, their siblings, and healthy controls. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;63(1):72-79.
113. Munafo MR, Brown SM, Hariri AR. Serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR) genotype and amygdala activation: a meta-analysis. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;63(9):852-857.
114. Apud JA, Mattay V, Chen J, et al. Tolcapone improves cognition and cortical information processing in normal human subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007;32(5):1011-1020.
115. Tunbridge EM, Bannerman DM, Sharp T, Harrison PJ. Catechol-Omethyltransferase inhibition improves set-shifting performance and elevates stimulated dopamine release in the rat prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci. 2004;24(23):5331-5335.
116. Lapish CC, Ahn S, Evangelista LM, So K, Seamans JK, Phillips AG. Tolcapone enhances food-evoked dopamine efflux and executive memory processes mediated by the rat prefrontal cortex. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2008;202(1-3): 521-530.
117. Diaz-Asper CM, Weinberger DR, Goldberg TE. Catechol-Omethyltransferase polymorphisms and some implications for cognitive therapeutics. Neuroreport. 2006;3(1):97-105.
118. Apud JA, Weinberger DR. Treatment of cognitive deficits associated with schizophrenia: potential role of catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitors. CNS Drugs. 2007;21(7):535-557.